Leadership Styles Of The Anime Show Essay - 1511 Words

Any organization or group of people, no matter how different, all have something in common. That is that within these groups of people, someone is in charge. If not because they were specifically put in power, then simply because people , for some reason or another, just listen to what they say. And just as there are and have been many leaders of various groups and organizations, there are also different styles of leading. Some methods for leading are, naturally, alot more effective than others. To effictively delve into leadership styles, it seems like an obvious option is to actually examine a couple of leaders, while comparing their leadership styles. Therefore, One that will be examined is a fictitious leader from the anime show, One Piece. The Characters Name is Monkey D. Luffy, and he is the leader of a pirate crew which is named the Straw Hat Pirates, After the infamous straw hat that Luffy wears. And who will be compared to the pirate captain? A very real non-fictional histo ric war vet, and once dictator of germany, Adolf Hitler. Both have been in the position of power and displayed their leadership abilities and now those leaders styles will be analyzed, to reveal various similarities, and expose the differences in leadership techniques used by both. So to start off, they will be compared before they are contrasted, but in what ways can the leader of Nazi Germany be compared to the main character of japanese cartoon show? Well for starters both have aShow MoreRelatedCaso 07 Hatsune Miku Japanese Virtual Idol Ignites Global Value Co creation8417 Words   |  34 Pagesopinion poll that asked â€Å"Who is the best singer for the London Olympics Opening Ceremony,† Miku ranked first, ahead of Lady Gaga and Justin Bieber.5 Miku herself, in her live-performance hologram form, was slated to be the opening act for a month of shows in Lady Gaga’s Artpop tour starting in May 2014.6 Miku’s exploding popularity brought with it new business opportunities for the company that created her. As of January 2014, 100,000 copies of the Hatsune Miku software had been sold.7 In addition,Read MoreMy Goals At Uci And Your Motivations Behind Them2340 Words   |  10 Pageslove to see what kind of styles I can learn. Art allows me to be creative and to be relieved from stress. I prefer to make things myself rather than buying materials because I feel a sense of satisfaction when I’m able to create something on my own. Another thing I like to do is making cards for others for their birthday and the holidays Occasionally, I paint sceneries on canvases or draw portraits as birthday gifts. In my spare time, I like to read manga and watch anime. During high school, I wasRead MoreSadie Hawkins Day and Valentine Grams18321 Words   |  74 Pagespeople, the L-Building was too small for the show. All the seats were filled and many spectators had to stand on the side. â€Å"The L-Building was too small. The room was packed. Maybe next year we can have two talent shows or maybe choose a bigger venue to accommodate for the capacity of the audience,† explains Special Education teacher Rowena Vocal. â€Å"We might need to pick a new location next year. I think we can also improve by shortening the length of the show to accommodate the number of students weRead More Japanese Animation and Identity Essay3705 Words   |  15 Pagesis also regarded as a culturally particular form of Japanese culture called â€Å"anime.† The point here is that these films were obviously produced in expectation of American audience (for ambiguously â€Å"international† purpose), to sell them the images of Japan. Some people may th ink that Japanese culture has other forms of â€Å"art† that have been well-treated in the United States compared to such a low pop-culture like anime, but the fact is that those typically Japanese cultural representations such asRead MoreImpact on Young Generation by Advertising Strartigies5850 Words   |  24 Pagesmanagement skills, services provided and trends opportunities. The report also discusses about the competitors of the Pizza Hut in India . It also covers various promotional techniques adopted by Pizza Hut in order to attract customers. It also shows its comparison with its competiotors. There is an intense competition among these players which make them come out with various offers time to time. Surveys were also conducted with customers during this project which gave insights about theseRead MoreEssay about Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy Case6620 Words   |  27 Pages | | |Leading Industry trend and new technologies | | |Strong leadership and talent | | |Strong financial results | | |AcquisitionRead MoreStudy Guide9234 Words   |  37 Pagessociologists study large populations of students, they can understand the larger social forces that may be contributing to this student’s hardships, such as a poor job market. These findings might show that the student was not in complete control of his or her own difficulties. This can be seen as terrible, because it shows that no one is in total control of his or her own fate. It can also be seen as magnificent because it gives us insight into how the world really works. 3. What is a social institution

Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated Essay

Essays on Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated Essay The paper "Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated" is an outstanding example of an essay on finance and accounting.   The cost-volume-profits analysis in this paper will involve the financial performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated. The furniture manufacturing company has recorded poor performance in 2011 compared to 2010. However, the company remained in good financial health because it had a current ratio of 2.09 and an acid ratio of 1.16. The firm is also profitable as indicated by its 0.19 ratio and 0.28 ratio as returns on assets. This shows how the firm has managed to efficiently manage its assets. In terms of leverage, Leggett Platt, Incorporated has a strong equity position because it uses less leverage. The firm has also recorded a high inventory turnover as indicated by a ratio of 8.24. The firm should consider improving its profits margin by reducing its expenses and increasing its sales revenue. It should consider making improvements to the collectio n of its accounts receivables because it has a very low ratio of 1.17. The computations of the ratio figures are listed in the appendix.   The furniture manufacturing firm has costs in terms of fixed, variable and mixed costs. The fixed costs may include land for factory, buildings, machinery equipment and office equipment, Variable costs may include materials, labor, office supplies and fuel for the factory. Mixed costs include the combination of labor with land for the factory. In my opinion, the standard version single is the most appropriate for the furniture business. This is because the costing method enables such a business to establish deviations in costs from the standard costs during the production process (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 2007). Ratio analysis is of importance to any business because it can be used in detecting fraud through the computation of variance in transactions. The variance is then used in calculating ratios for specific numbers. Some of the ratios commonly used in detecting fraud include maximum/minimum ratio, maximum/2nd highest and field 1/field 2 (American Ins titute of Certified Public Accountants, 2007). The detection of fraud aids the business in developing ethic standards for its employees hence maintaining high levels of good behavior.

Self-Access Learning Free Essays

Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. We will write a custom essay sample on Self-Access Learning or any similar topic only for you Order Now my/PP/SAL/index. html3/31/2005 12:04:49 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning INTRODUCTION Self-Access Learning (SAL) was first introduced and piloted in SRK Sri Kelana, Selangor Darul Ehsan in 1990. Since then it has been extended to 150 schools in Malaysia. It was initiated by the Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. The contents of the book focus on an Overview of SAL, Setting up a Self- Access Centre, Learning Materials and Equipment, Learners Training and SAL in Operation. Sample materials to give teachers and insight into SAL are also included. Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (1 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (2 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (3 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (4 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 1 Self-Access | Self-Access Learning (SAL) | Objectives | Main Features file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1a. htm3/31/2005 12:05:06 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Self-Access OVERVIEW Self- access is a system which allows pupils learn at their own pace and time using organized learning materials and equipment. Self-Access Learning (SAL) Self -access learning (SAL) at the primary school level refers to independent learning through the use of learning materials. It is linked to the prescribed curriculum. Pupils are given opportunity to their own activities, correct and evaluate their own work as well as monitor their own progress. Philosophy of SAL file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1. tml (1 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 The concept of SAL is based on the following:q q q q q q every pupil is an individual with different needs, interest, attitudes and aptitudes. every pupil learns in different ways and at varied rates. every pupil is responsible for his or her own learning. every pupil is given the oppo rtunity to learn how to learn. the teacher caters for all individual needs of the pupils. the teacher creates a conducive, tension – free learning environment. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1. html (2 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Objectives of SAL q q q q to provide opportunities for pupils to learn how to learn. to cater for the pupils’ individual needs and learning styles. to allow pupils to evaluate and assess their own learning. to complement classroom teaching and learning. Main Features of SAL file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (3 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (4 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Introduction SETTING UP A SELF- ACCESS CENTRE A self- Access Centre (SAC) is a resource where organized learning materials and equipment are made available and accessible for pupils. In the SAC, materials and equipment such as journals, w orksheets, cassette tapes, video tapes, computer assisted language learning (CALL) file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (5 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 rogrammes, games, radio cassette recorders sets and video recorders are placed and organized systematically. Functions of the SAC ? Provides conducive learning environment ? Provides opportunities for pupils to carry out learning activities. ? Houses learning materials and equipment. ? Displays information charts and pupils work. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (6 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Factors to be considered when setting up a SAC Location The SAC can be a room by itself, a corner in classroom or in the school resource centre. It should also be easily accessible. In schools with limited rooms or space, teachers can arrange the materials in boxes which can be mobilized to the classroom whenever necessary. Design The design should be conducive to individual learning styles as well as small group interaction. It should be attractive and appealing to the pupils. Layout The layout is the arrangement of furniture, materials and equipment in the SAC. They should be placed in such a way where the pupils can move easily. The SAC would include the following: q q q Reading corner Computer Assisted Language Learning corner Carrels for listening ile:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (7 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 q q q q Video viewing corner Games corner Working area Display area A SAMPLE PLAN OF A SAC IN A SRC SAMPLE PLAN OF A SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1 . html (8 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Books and print materials To ensure that the materials last, worksheets may be mounted onto cards and laminated o sealed in plastic. Each item is then arranged in separate boxes which are colour-coded for the language proficiency level. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (9 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Equipment Cassette recorders are the most necessary equipment. They are used for practising listening and speaking skills. The activity cards accompanying the tapes are labelled, colour-coded and placed on shelves. Computers are excellent aids to SAL. Television sets and video recorders enable pupils to listen and watch English programmes. Time Teachers need time to set up the SAC and to prepare pupils to learn independently. It may take between 3 or 6 months before the SAC can be setup and be functional. Funds Setting up SAC needs time and money. If there is limited fund, teachers have to set priority and seek for assistance or sponsorship. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (10 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (11 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 A SAC SK Seri Perlis, Perlis A SAC corner in a resource centre SRK Tengku Abdul Halim, Alor Star, Kedah A SAL corner in a resource centre. SK Kampung Baru Keningau, Sabah Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (12 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Chapter 2 | Functions of the SAC | Factors to be considered when setting up a SAC ile:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter2a. htm3/31/2005 12:05:32 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 3 Introduction to Chapter 3 | Types of SAL worksheets Type of Self Access Language Learning Materials | Classification code for Worksheet Guidelines for writing worksheets | Procedures for writing worksheets | Checklist for evaluation Self-Access Classification Code for English at Primary School Level file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. pm. my/p/sal/chapter3aa. htm3/31/2005 12:05:44 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Chapter 3 SELF-ACCESS LANGUAGE LEARNING MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Self-access language learning materials are self instructional materials written or adapted by teachers. They are made available and accessible to the pupils to work individually, in pairs or in groups with or without direct supervision from the teacher. The materials should cater for the pupils learning styles, abilities and interests. The materials written or adapted are based on the language skills, thinking skills, grammar and vocabulary. They may be learning materials, practice materials or test materials. Types of SAL worksheets Type of Self Access Language Learning Materials | Classification code for Worksheet Guidelines for writing worksheets | Procedures for writing worksheets | Checklist for evaluation Self-Access Classification Code for English at Primary School Level file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (1 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Types of SAL Worksheets Practice worksheet | Test worksheet | Back to Chapter 3 Main Page | Home 1. Learning worksheet Learning worksheets are those which contain information and explanation for the pupils to read, understand and apply them. Example of a learning worksheet: Yr. 6/Ep3/Blue/(07)/( ) Instructions: i. Read the sentences carefully. ii. Study the diagram below. We use ‘a’ when the noun begins with a consonant, but if the noun begins with a vowel sound, ‘an’ is used. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (2 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Task: Fill in the blanks with ‘a’ or ‘an’. Example: I have †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. en. I have a pen 1. Pulau Gaya is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. island off Sabah. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (3 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. Malaysia has †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. hot and wet climate. 3. Draw †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. line across this circle. 4. My brother Abu is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ kite maker. 5. My sister often takes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. apple to school. 6. Mary’s mother bought her †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. new umbrella. 7. You cannot make †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. omelette without breaking eggs. 8. Puan Farida has †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. very pretty white cat. Yr 6/EP 3/Blue/(07)/( ) Answer Key 1. an 3. a 5. an 7. an 2. a 4. a 6. a 8. a file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (4 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. Practice worksheets Practice worksheets give pupils the opportunity to reinforce the skills learnt in the classroom. The exercises include: * problem solving * games and puzzles Example of a practice worksheet: Yr4/R2. 1/Red/(03)/( ) Instructions: 1. Look at the pictures for the clues. 2. Copy the puzzle into your SAL book. . Complete the puzzle. 4. Check your answers with the answer key. Task: Rearrange the letters to find out the names of the things in the picture below. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (5 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Yr4/R2. 1/Red/(03)/( ) file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (6 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Answer key 1. 3. 5. 7. 9. TREES TRACTOR CLOUD PATH BRIDGE 2. 4. 6. 8. FIELD MOUNTAIN HEDGE GATE 10. RIVER 12. FENCE 11. TIN Example of practice worksheet Yr4/R4. 7/RED/05/( ) Instructions: 1. Look at the picture. 2. Read the questions. 3. Write your answers in your SAL Book. 4. Check your answers with your teacher. Task: Poh Quan is going to do something. What is she going to do? Why? file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (7 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 3. Test Worksheets file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (8 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Test worksheet contain exercises given to pupils to test how much they have understood and learnt. Example of a test worksheet. Yr. 6/EP 3/(Blue)/(08)/( ) Instructions: 1. Do this exercise in your SAL book 2. Read the sentences carefully. 4. Check your answers with the answer key. Task: Fill in the blanks with ‘a’ or ‘an’. Did you see †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (1) old lady with †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (2) umbrella walking here about †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (3) hours ago? She was wearing †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (4) apron and †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (5) unusual hat. She had †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6) animal with her that had yellow feathers. Was the animal †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (7) elephant? Was it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (8 ) anteater? Was it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (9) ostrich? Could it be †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (10) yellow bird? Yr. /EP3/(Blue)/(08)/( ) Answer key 1. an 6. an file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (9 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. an 3. an 4. an 5. BRIDGE 7. 8. 9. an an an 10. a TYPES OF SELF ACCESS LANGUAGE LEARNING MATERIALS file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. y/pp/sal/chapter3. html (10 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Worksheets are essential in SAL. They are self-instructional and written or adapted based on the English Language KBSR syllabus 1982. The pupils who use these worksheets are learning from them with the teacher as a facilitator. Therefore teachers have to be precise, clear and appropriate when writing instructions. The format of a SAL worksheet is given be low. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (11 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (12 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 a. Classification code enables the pupils to find the worksheets they need. It is written on the top right hand corner. It gives the following information: Year: Year 4 (Yr4) Year 5 (Yr. 5) Year 6 (Yr. 6) Skills: R L W EP – Reading – Listening – Writing – Examination practice Sub-skills: R1 – Recognise and Read file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (13 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 R2 R3 R4 R5 – Read and Match – Read and Group – Read and Comprehend – Dictionary skills Level: The worksheets are graded to 3 levels of language proficiency: Green – elementary Red Blue – intermediate – advance Activity type Each piece of worksheet has a number which indicates the type of activity for the pupils to work on. The following are examples of activities for reading. 01 Read Match 02 Read Draw 03 Read Arrange 04 Read Sequence 05 Read Solve 06 Read Group 07 Read Answer file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. tml (14 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 08 Read Complete 09 Read Join 10 Read Choose 11 Read Follow 12 Read Correct errors Note: Teachers may add more activities using their own numbers. Copy number: This number indicates which copy the worksheet is. First copy – (1) Second c opy – (2) Third copy – (3) e. g. b. Instruction c. Task d. Answer key These are instruction for the pupils to follow. This is the actual exercise. Answer provided at the back of the worksheets for the pupils to check and correct. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. tml (15 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Guidelines for writing worksheets * * * The worksheets should be attractive. The variety of tasks, exercises and activities should be motivating an challenging. The worksheets should be graded according to the pupils’ level of language proficiency. Procedure for writing worksheets file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (16 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 * * * * Identity the classification code (The classification code is given on page 22) Give clear and precise instructions. Set the task and plan the activities. Provide an answer key. Checklist for evaluation The following questions need to be asked and answer when one is evaluation SAL worksheet. a. Does the activity give a clear picture of the skills it is focusing? b. Does the activity give a clear picture of the language item or skill to be learnt or reinforced c. Does the worksheet fit in the following category: file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (17 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 * learning? * practice? * test? d. Does the feedback take the following form: * an answer key? * a discussion with the teacher? * a discussion with a friend? * a model made by the pupil? e. Does the activity encourage creative and critical thinking? Writing SAL worksheets is a very challenging task. If we reflect on how our pupils will benefit from SAL we will work at it for â€Å"Tomorrow’s comfort requires today’s hardwork. † Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (18 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 4 What is Learner Training | Why Learner Training | Aims | Teacher’s Role Implementation of Learner Training Activities | Bridging The Gap Activities Learner Independence Activities | Language Awareness Activities Preparation of Pupils for SAL | Learner Orientation | Sample Questionaire 1 Sample Questionaire 2 | Sample Questionaire 3 | Placement Test for Year 4 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4a. htm3/31/2005 12:06:10 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Chapter 4 LEARNER TRAINING What is Learner Training? Learner Training refers to a process of training the pupils to become more effective active learners during SAL period. It also means preparing pupils to learn how to learn; to work independently with or without teacher supervision. In learner training pupils must be trained to learn how to use self-access materials such as worksheets, books and equipment such as cassette recorders, video recorders and computers. Learner Training also trains pupils in self-assessment. Why Learner Training? The rationale for Learner Training is: file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (1 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 to train pupils to learn how to learn. to familiarise pupils with the use of the Self-Access Centre. to make pupils aware of the various materials and equipment found in the SAC. to create readiness in pupils to learn the English Language independently. Aims To help pu pils become effective learners and be responsible for their own learning. To help pupils focus their attention on how to learn rather than what to learn. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. tm (2 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 The Teacher’s role in Learning Training Encourages group interaction among pupils in the classroom. Helps pupils to be aware of the wide range of strategies for language learning. Creates a learning environment where pupils feel they can experiment with their own language learning. Counsels and guide pupils when possible. Prepares the pupils to learn on their own. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (3 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Implementation of Training Activities Learner training activities are not introduced separately but they are integrated in the daily English Language lesson. These activities are elements woven into the â€Å"fabric† of a daily English Language lesson and have been introduced to the pupils even before SAL was introduced in the school. Components of learner training activities for SAL at the primary school level are: Bridging the gap activities Preparation of pupils for SAL Pupil Orientation of the SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (4 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Bridging the gap activities These are activities that prepare pupils for independent learning. They are: Activities which Develop Social Skills in Pupils The pupils working in the SAC will have to share the materials and take turns to use the equipment. Teachers need to plan activities which train and develop the pupil’s awareness of oneself as well as the needs of sharing materials ability to choose the kind of materials and equipment to use and what to do should someone else chooses to use them at the same time; and responsibility for their actions. Some activities which develop pupils’ social skills, are: making them group eaders when doing work giving them duties to do after practical work organising competitions to see which area is the cleanest after pupils do practical work file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (5 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Learner Independence Act ivities Such activities develop skills in the pupils to learn to take turns; to decide upon the role of leaders; to switch roles. These activities train the pupils to be independent and responsible and can be found in their textbooks. Many examples of a learner independence activity for Year 6 can be found in Exercise A Page 19 of Farida J. Ibrahim Beatrice Thiyagarajah â€Å"Moving On With English KBSR Year 6. † D. B. P. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (6 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Language Awareness Activities These activities help pupils to think and understand the language. They are carried out during the English lessons. The following examples are taken from page 42 and 43 of Farida J. Ibrahim Beatrice Thiyagarajah â€Å"Moving On With English Year 6,† D. B. P. Example 1 Guess where these people are going. Then make sentences about what they wear. Example: Hashim is going to the mosque. He wears a baju Melayu a sarung and a songkok when he goes to the mosque. Example 2 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (7 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 The policeman is trying to catch the thief. He talks to four men. What are their answers? file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (8 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Preparation of pupils for SAL Preparing the pupils to work independently or with minimal teacher supervision would include training them to: read and understand instructional language read and follow instructions plan their own learning programmes make them aware of their learning strategies monitor their own learning â€Å"If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetimes. † Confucius (551-471 BC) file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. tm (9 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Learner Orientation Pupils need to be familiar with the SAC and SAL materials and equipment; so they are taken to the SAC and given a guided tour of the place. During the tour these pupils are given a short quiz to familiarise themselves with the self-access learning system of the school. An information sheet listing what i s available and where to find it can be given to the pupils. Pupils will be given a learner’s file or a SAL booklet on the first day they go to the SAC. They are asked to use that booklet till they leave the school. In this way the pupils are able to record their progress and also the change in their learning attitude. It is important to realise that learner training is a systematic and gradual process. Teachers need to give their pupils time to develop and become effective independent learners. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (10 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 1 Getting to know your SAC Instruction: Answer the following questions. 1. Look around you. Can you name 5 things in the SAC? __________________________________________________________ 2. Where would you go to get a green level worksheet? _____________________________________________________ 3. What are the colour codes found in the worksheet? _____________________________________________________ 4. If you want to look up the meaning of words, what book would you take? Where can I get it? ___________________________ ________________________________________________ 5. Label the plan of your SAC. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (11 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 2 Tell me about your SAC Instruction: Answer the following questions. 1. Is your SAC different from your classroom? ___________________________________________________________ 2. Are there any reading cards in your SAC? _____________________________________________________ 3. Where can you find them? _____________________________________________________ 4. Name three corners in the SAC? _____________________________________________________ 5. Which corner do you like best? Why? _____________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (12 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 3 What you can do in during the Self-Access Learning Period 1. Do you already know about the self-access learning room / corner in your school? _________________________________________________________________________ 2. What kind of materials can y ou find in your SAL corner / room? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (13 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 3. Can you do the following activities or use the following materials at the self-access learning corner / room in your school? What is their code? predicting outcomes learn more about universal truths get the meaning of words from the text itself read and solve puzzles listen to a story listen to music Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. 4. Can you get help when you are working at the SAL corner / room? Who will help you? __________________________________________________________________ 5. When do you take a book during the SAL period? __________________________________________________________________ Do you play games during the SAL period? Can you list the games you can play in pairs and in groups during the SAL periods? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (14 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (15 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test PLACEMENT TEST FOR FORM 4 Name Year : _____________________________________ : _____________________________________ Placement Test Before the pupils begin to use the SAL materials and equipment in the SAC, they are given a placement test to determine their English Language proficiency level. The marks they score in the test will enable them to work on the SAL materials according to the colour code. Questions are based on the skills taught that particular year. Suggested marking scheme according to SAL colour code. 0 39 marks 69 marks (Green) (Red) (Blue) 40 – 70 – 100 marks An example of Placement Test for Year 4 Questions 1 – 5 A. Name the objects below. Use the words in the box. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (1 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 1. __________________ 2. __________________ 3. _________________ 4. __________________ 5. __________________ Questions 6-10 B. Read the sentences below. Write them correctly beside each picture. She waters the flowers at 5 o’clock in the evening. She leaves the school at 1 o’clock in the afternoon. She reads her books at 8 o’clock at night. Rina gets up at 6 o’clock in the morning. She goes to bed at 10 o’clock at night file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (2 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 6. _______________________________ 7. _______________________________ . _______________________________ 9. _______________________________ 10. _______________________________ Questions 11-15 C. Give the opposites of the words below. Choose the answers from the circles. 11. bad 12. happy 13. thin – __________ __________ __________ 14. good 15. clear – ___________ ___________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (3 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test Questions 11-15 D. Fill in the blanks with the correct words. Rubber tapper butcher postman carpenter nurse 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Pak Aman is a _________________. He sells meat at the market. My brother is a _________________. He delivers letters and parcels. Zaniah’s sister is a ________________. She works in a hospital. En Hashim is a __________________. He makes furniture. My neighbour is a _________________. He works in a rubber estate. Questions 21 – 25 E. Match A and B. Write the sentences in the space provided. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. tm (4 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Questions 26 – 30 F. Arrange the sentences below to form a story Every evening he practises i n his school field. First he runs around the field. Then he practises high jump. When it gets late, he goes home. Sham is taking part in the 100 metres race and the high jump. 26. _________________________________________________________________________ 27. ________________________________________________________________________ 28. _________________________________________________________________________ 29. _________________________________________________________________________ 30. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (5 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test _________________________________________________________________________ Questions 31 – 35 G. Look at the picture. Fill in the blanks with the following words. out on in near at Samad has a canary. He keeps it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (31) the cage. He puts the cage †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (32) the cupboard. His cat sitting †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (33) the table is looking †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (34) the bird. The cat is trying to catch the bird. Samad comes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (35) from his room and chases the cat away. Questions 36 – 40 H. Arrange the words below to make meaningful statements. 36. __________________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (6 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 37. __________________________________________________________ 38. _________________________________________________________ 39. __________________________________________________________ 40. ___________________________________________________ _______ Questions 41 – 45 A. Read and circle the correct answers. Ali’s Diary SUNDAY Isa and I went to Tanjung Malim. Very hot day. Storm at night. The roof leaked. Woke up and had to move my bed. Ashiah’s birthday. She had a party. A man came to look at the roof. Late for school because the bus broke down. Some men repaired the roof. Some dead birds in the roof. Dad went to Penang for two days. Helicopter crashed in Singapore. Had stomach ache in the morning. Better in the afternoon. MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (7 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test THURSDAY Dad returned. Uncle came. Letter from Zainal in Australia. Broke my bicycle pump. 41. Where did Isa go on Sunday? A. Pulau Pinang B. Tanjung Malim C. Singapore D. Australia 42. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. Ashiah’s birthday was on Sunday. B. Ali’s father repaired the roof on Monday. C. Ali had stomach ache in the morning. D. Ali’s uncle came from Australia. 43. What did Ali break during the week? A. His bed B. The bus C. His bicycle pump D. The roof 44. Why did Ali move his bed on Sunday night? A. It was a stormy night. B. It was very hot. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (8 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test C. There were dead birds in the roof. D. The roof leaked. 45. The word returned in the diary means †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. A. came back B. went C. gave D. arrived Questions 46 – 50 B. Read the passage and answer the questions that follow. Ahmad lived in a village. He had fifty sheep. He liked to play tricks on people. One day Ahmad took his sheep to the hill. He rested under a big tree. Suddenly he had an idea. He decided to trick the villagers. He shouted that a tiger was attacking his sheep. The villagers rushed out to help him. They did not see any tiger. They knew that Ahmad had tricked them. They were angry. One afternoon, a tiger really attacked Ahmad’s sheep. He shouted for help but †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 46. How many sheep did Ahmad have? He had __________________________________________________ 47. How did he trick the villagers? He tricked them by __________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (9 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 48. The villagers were angry because ______________________________ ________________________________________________________ 49. Choose the best ending to the story. A. the villagers came to help him B. the villagers caught the tiger C. the villagers did not come to help him D. the villagers tricked him 50. From the story we know that Ahmad was †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. A. naughty boy. B. A hardworking boy C. A cheerful boy D. A lazy boy file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (10 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools SAL BOOKLET Contents | Plan of my SAC | My learning contract | My study plan | My activ ity plan My evaluation sheet | My record sheet (Sample 1) | My record sheet (Sample 2) My record sheet for reading (Sample 1) | My record sheet for reading (Sample 2) Rules on the care of SAL materials and equipment ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/booklet. htm3/31/2005 12:07:05 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet SAL BOOKLET – Contents file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/sal_booklet2. htm (1 of 13)3/31/2005 12:07:13 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet PLAN OF MY SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/sal_booklet2. htm (2 of 13)3/31/2005 12:07:13 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet How to cite Self-Access Learning, Essay examples

Drinking water contamination Essay Example For Students

Drinking water contamination Essay Due to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), Americas drinking water is safer than it has been in decades, and of better quality than that of many other countries. Accordingly, many Americans believe that while people elsewhere may have reason to be concerned about getting sick from contaminated tap water, we are safe. Yet, incidents in the United States such as the outbreak of the microorganism cryptosporidium in Milwaukees water supply in 1993 that killed more than one hundred people and sickened over 400,000, and lead and pesticide contamination while not affecting most, threaten the tap water of millions of Americans. In truth, according to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data, in 1994 and 1995, 45 million Americans drank water from water systems that fell short of SDWA standards.1 Adding gravity to the situation, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the EPA advised that people with weakened immune systems should consult with their doctors and consider boiling their drinking water to kill any cryptosporidium.2This is just the tip of the iceberg. Some scientists believe that for every outbreak reported in the United States, another ten may be occurring.3 One such study found that as many as one in three gastrointestinal illnesses often chalked up to stomach flu are caused by drinking water contaminated with microorganisms.4Such microbial-related outbreaks say nothing about the many other hazards borne by our nations water supply. Researchers have shown that millions of Americans regularly drink tap water that is contaminated with toxic and cancer-causing chemicals such as lead, trihalome thanes (THMs), arsenic, radioactive materials, and pesticides. A 1994 study estimated that some 14.1 million Americans drank water contaminated with the pesticides atrazine, cyanazine, simazine, alachlor, and metolachlor.5 The manufacturers of these agricultural herbicides have shown that these chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, and genetic mutations. To make matters worse, some water utilities have been less than forthcoming with information about their drinking water supplies and the efficacy of their purifying methods. While the primary concern of most water utilities is delivering safe drinking water and a large number readily share their water quality data with the public many insist on erecting barriers between the public they serve and information about the water they supply.6As a result of the failure of the government and many water systems in the country to protect the drinking water supply, many Americans no longer trust the purity of their tap water, and so pay enormous amounts of money nearly $2 billion annually for bottled water and home tap water treatment units.7 Unfortunately, there are few standards guaranteeing the quality of these options. According to one study, as much as one-quarter to one-third of all bottled water sold in the United States originates from water supplied by public water utilities.8Unhealthy drinking water affects children in different ways than it does adults. There is cause for special concern for the health of children who drink tap water. Legal standards for most waterborne contaminants generally have been set based on the health effects of pollutants on average adults; consequently, the health of millions of people including infants, children, pregnant women and their fetuses, the elderly, and the chronically ill -may not be protected. To compound matters, infants and children drink more than two and a half times as much water as adults as a proportion of their body weight.9 An infant living solely on formula consumes about one-seventh of its own weight of water each day, which would correspond to approximately three gallons of water for a 155-pound adult man.10 The hazards posed by waterborne lead are especially pernicious. In 1991, the EPA estimated that lead in drinking water harms the health of millions of children, causing more than 560,000 children to exceed the level of concern for blood-lead levels defined by the CDC.11 (A recent EPA rule regulating lead in drinking water may have reduced this number of children.) Particularly susceptible to waterborne lead poisoning are infants, who are often exposed when their formula is reconstituted with tap water. This chapter discusses the widespread contamination of the United States drinking water supplies by microorganisms, pesticides, lead, disinfectant by-products, arsenic, and radioactivity. Citizens need to seek remedies to ensure the health of their families in the face of increasing threats to the nations water supply. Toward that end this chapter describes scientific research bearing on the health impacts of water contamination on children, suggests measures that concerned parents and others can take and identifies model programs of local solutions that have worked throughout the nation. HAZARDS OF DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATIONWilliam K. Reilly, Administrator of the EPA under the Bush Administration, classified drinking water contamination among the top four public health risks posed by environmental problems.12 Some experts estimate that 560,000 people become moderately to severely ill each year from consuming contaminated water.13 About 10,700 bladder and rectal cancers each year may be associated with THMs and their chemical cousins.14 That translates into about thirty cancers per day. The large number of disease outbreaks throughout the country should come as no surprise, considering how many Americans drink tap water that fails to meet minimum EPA health and treatment standards for infectious microorganisms standards which themselves overlook some of the most hazardous pathogens presently infecting our nations water supply. Waterborne pathogen sources that can cause disease outbreaks include leaking septic tanks; uncontrolled urban runoff contaminated with animal waste; manure in farm, feedlot,15 and slaughterhouse runoff or direct discharges; and raw or inadequately treated sewage overflows from aging, poorly managed, or inadequately designed sewage conveyance and treatment systems. Drinking water disease outbreaks occur when drinking water wells, surface sources, or post-treatment water in pipes or storage areas of water systems become contaminated with disease-causing microbes that originate from these sources. Since many drinking water watersheds and recharge areas are now under heavy development pressure, this problem is likely to worsen in the absence of political or legal action. Existing data on contamination are troubling. A 1991 survey of sixty-six surface water plants in fourteen states and one Canadian province revealed that 87 percent of raw water samples contained cryptosporidium, and 81 percent contained a similar parasite called giardia; overall, the study showed, some 97 percent of the samples contained one of these two disease carriers.16 Some of these organisms may have been nonviable, and therefore unable to infect people. In many cases, these organisms cannot be sufficiently controlled with chlorine disinfection. EPA data show that more than 29 million people drank water served by systems with coliform bacteria higher than the EPAs health standards allow, and that 19.6 million Americans drank water from systems that failed to meet the EPAs basic treatment standards, which indicate inadequate quality, filtration, or disinfection. 17 Another 10.2 million people in the United States were being served water found to contain turbidity18 the cloudiness that often signals microbiological contamination and that can make it impossible to effectively disinfect the water even with heavy doses of chlorine. In Milwaukee, for instance, the only initial sign of a problem was the waters turbidity. Testing for cryptosporidium, the deadly parasite that caused the diarrhea and vomiting, did not occur until after people became sick. In fact, until 1997, EPA regulations failed to require any monitoring of water supplies for cryptosporidium. Amendments to SDWA in 1996 require the EPA to regulate cryptosporidium levels, starting with large supply systems. As a result, commencing in the summer of 1997, large systems serving over 100,000 started monitoring for cryptosporidium, and under a rule scheduled to be issued in 1998, most large systems will have to take preliminary steps to filter out cryptosporidium. By the year 2000, the EPA must issue a final rule applicable to all drinking water systems using surface water. Many water systems in the United States may be more vulnerable than Milwaukees to contamination by disease-carrying organisms. The Milwaukee water supply is filtered, though apparently the filter suffered from some type of failure. Unfiltered systems or systems with poorly operated and maintained filters may be at even greater risk. In a limited sampling of fewer than one hundred utilities, NRDC found that more than 45.6 million Americans drank water supplied by systems where the unregulated and potentially deadly contaminant cryptosporidium was found in their raw or treated water.19 Hundreds of chemicals and microbes have been detected in drinking water supplies throughout the country, yet tests are required for just over a hundred of these.20There has been no coordinated effort between government agencies and researchers to document levels of contamination or illness caused by many waterborne microbes, including cryptosporidium. The lack of an active waterborne disease surveillance program in the United States means that reports of outbreaks are haphazard. A CDC report found that the waterborne-related illnesses reported each year probably represent only a small proportion of all illnesses associated with waterborne-disease agents.21 This report goes on to state that illnesses occurring after years of exposure to low-level toxins are not detectable, nor are outbreaks of sporadic illnesses resulting from opportunistic pathogens that may be widespread in chlorinated drinking water systems but that may cause illness with insidious onset and long incubation periods in persons who are immunocompromised.The CDC tracked 116 waterborne disease outbreaks that killed more than a hundred and sickened more than 450,000 others between 1971 and 1994.22 Although the majority of those illnesses occurred during one incident in Milwaukee, other significant outbreaks occurred, including one affecting 13,000 people in Georgia. Aside from the Milwaukee incident, where 400,000 people became ill due to cryptosporidium, none of these outbreaks of waterborne disease have received significant national attention. Epidemic outbreaks of waterborne disease those in which many people fall ill at once are difficult to ignore, say some researchers, whereas endemic levels of waterborne disease incidents in which a modest percentage of the population fall ill, or in which the illnesses are chronic and long-term may be occurring continually with nobodys knowledge. One CDC expert concluded that thousands of people would have to become afflicted with a waterborne illness in New York City before public officials would be able to recognize it as an outbreak, and even then there would be no guarantee that the disease source would be properly identified.23One study sheds light on the grave situation in which our ignorance places us. Researchers installed sophisticated under-the-sink filters in a number of homes served by a water system meeting all current standards for water treatment, including filtration and disinfection. Then they tracked the number of illnesses in these homes, as well as the illnesses in homes served by the same water system but which lacked the sophisticated filters. What the researchers found was as surprising as it was troubling: significantly higher rates of people who did not have the filters became sick compared with those whose water was filtered. The researchers estimated that 35 percent of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among tap water drinkers were water-related and preventable.24PesticidesContamination of water resources is one of the most damaging and widespread environmental effects of agricultural production. Drinking water is vulnerable to pollution by agricultural chemicals, including pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers, as well as their metabolites. Design Of An Aquatic Centre Construction EssayWhile lead, when present, is a serious health threat, there is a very good chance that you do not have a lead problem. The nations leading water-lead research program, at the University of North Carolina at Asheville has tested the water from more than 60,000 homes. It found that 83 percent of the homes tested had very low levels of lead. Another 15 percent could solve their problem by running the water briefly before using it.40 In 1993, Consumer Reports announced the results of their nationwide drinking water sampling for lead. Sixty-one percent of the households had no detectable lead (detection limit 2 parts per billion (ppb)).41Trihalomethanes and Other Disinfection By-ProductsDisinfection of water supplies has substantially reduced the incidence of many waterborne diseases. But there are risks associated with this process. Trihalomethanes (THMs) and other disinfection by-products (DBPs), which are formed when chlorine or other sim ilar disinfectants are used to purify water that has not been treated to remove organic matter before disinfection, are found at significant levels in the drinking water of 80 to 100 million Americans.42 Animal studies have long shown that these chemicals are likely to cause cancer in people.43An analysis in American Journal of Public Health of more than ten epidemiological studies found that DBPs may be responsible for 10,700 or more rectal and bladder cancers per year.44 Colorado researchers recently completed another study of human populations exposed to DBPs. That study confirmed the findings of previous studies that exposure to DBPs is significantly associated with bladder cancer.45 Another study concluded that analyses of the health effects of exposure to THMs and possibly other DBPs may have substantially underestimated risks due to understatement of exposure.46 The researchers found that overall lifetime cancer risk associated with exposure to THMs in shower water is underes timated by about 50 percent if the concentration of THMs in cold water is used in a risk assessment. The level of THMs increases substantially when water is heated, but most studies have measured concentrations of THMs in cold water. When steam is inhaled during use of hot water, such as showering, exposure to DBPs is increased, and the risks are higher than generally assumed. By improving water treatment such as physically removing precursors to DBPs water systems can control DBPs while reducing microbiological risks. Modern treatment technologies known as precursor removal, such as granular activated carbon, can be employed without harming the ability of water systems to disinfect their water. However, only a relative handful of U.S. water systems use this technology. In light of strong evidence that DBPs pose serious health risks, the EPA is required to issue rules in late 1998 to reduce THM levels. More stringent requirements are due in 2002. ArsenicThe most significant non-occupational exposure to arsenic now occurs through the contamination of drinking water. There are numerous studies of populations with exposure to high levels of arsenic through drinking water (at levels above the current EPA standard unchanged since 1942 of 50 ppb). In humans, skin cancer has long been associated with chronic ingestion of arsenic.47 Bladder, lung, and other types of cancer have also been observed at elevated rates in populations exposed to arsenic in tap water.48 In the United States, more than 50 million people drink tap water containing arsenic, mostly at levels below EPAs current standard of 50 ppb. It has been estimated, however, that 25 million people in this country are exposed to at least 25 ppb of arsenic in their drinking water and that as many as 350,000 people may be exposed to levels greater than the 50 ppb standard.51California state experts found that water containing arsenic at the level of the EPAs current drinking water standard (set in 1942 before arsenic was known to cause cancer) presents a risk of more than one cancer in every one hundred people exposed 10,000 times higher risk than the EPAs standard acceptable cancer risk of one in one million.52 This is extremely troubling because 35 million people in the United States drink water every day from their community water systems that contain arsenic at a level of over 1 ppb, which presents a very significant cancer risk.53While numerous studies in other countries have demonstrated arsenics carcinogenicity at moderate to high doses, a handful of very small studies done on U.S. populations have failed to show a statistically significant increase in the risk of developing skin cancer at low dose exposures. The difficulty of demonstrating adverse health effects may be due to the type of study design and the small populations studied, both of which decrease the statistical power of a study to detect adverse health effects. Researchers from the University of California recently found increased rates of death from vascular diseases such as arteriosclerosis, aortic aneurysms, and other diseases of the arteries, arterioles, and capillaries among Americans living in areas with relatively higher levels of arsenic in their drinking water.54 Another study found a link between this widespread drinking water contaminant and diabetes mellitus.55 According to the study of large populations in Taiwan, people who receive significant levels of arsenic in their drinking water have a six to ten times greater risk of developing diabetes mellitus. The researchers found that there was a dose-response relationship that is, the more arsenic in the drinking water, the more likely the person was to be diabetic reinforcing the weight of their findings. The researchers concluded that chronic arsenic exposure may induce diabetes mellitus in humans.Bottled Water and Home Water Filters Though Americans try to ensure the safety o f their drinking water by paying nearly $2 billion each year for bottled water and home treatment units, the quality of the water they receive may not be any better than tap water.49 Home treatment units, which can cost hundreds of dollars, are virtually unregulated, and while many companies test their filters voluntarily, others fail to do so. There also is no requirement that home treatment units be independently tested to ensure that they meet their claims and provide safe water. Hundreds of times more expensive than tap water, bottled water is often no safer. In fact, one study estimated that as much as one-quarter to one-third of all bottled water sold in the United States comes from water supplied by public water utilities.50 Bottled water is governed by an often less stringent set of regulations set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). While the FDA is required to set contaminant standards at the same levels for bottled water as for tap water, these standards in some ca ses still fall short. The FDA generally requires only one chemical test per year, making it unlikely that some important problems will be detected. The standards also fail to account for decreases in microbiological quality caused by long-term water storage, and the results are often not required to be reported to public health authorities. RadiationRadon is an odorless and colorless radioactive gas that generally occurs in drinking water derived from groundwater as a result of the underground decay of naturally-occurring radioactive rock. It is considered to be a known human carcinogen by the National Academy of Sciences and others.56Drinking water contaminated with radon in excess of the EPAs proposed standard of 300 picocuries* per liter of water (pCi/L) flows from the taps and showerheads of over 19 million people according to available EPA data.57 It also is in the water of 81 million people at an average of about 246 pCi/L, posing significant health risks.58 As required by the 1996 amendments to the SDWA, the EPA must establish an enforceable standard for radon in tap water by the year 2000. Radon in drinking water poses significant threats due to inhalation during and after water use.59 The EPA has also found that the ingestion of radon and its decay products poses significant cancer risks.60 The EPA has acknowledged that the cancer risks from radon in both air and water are high and that while the airborne risk typically exceeds that arising from water, the cancer risk in water is higher than the cancer risk estimated to result from any other drinking water contaminant.61

Iliad by Homer free essay sample

A discussion of the three primary themes of the epic Iliad. This paper outlines and discusses various themes pertinent to the epic. It establishes that the epic is primarily based on the following three concerns, the Trojan War, Achilles wrath, and the relationship of mortal people with the gods and goddesses of Mt. Olympus. This paper discusses in length the various ways by which the characters behaviors and actions and the storys plot are affected through the patterns used by the author in this epic. The war also brings about systems of immoral activities. In war, the warriors are not the only ones involved, but also the people, the women and their children. By bringing destruction to both sides of warring groups, the plight of the civil society worsens, and the warriors forget that what they are fighting for is the future of their civilization and society. However, this objective cannot be met because as long as war can bring strife and restlessness to the people, then these good intentions and objectives are not fulfilled. We will write a custom essay sample on Iliad by Homer or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Lastly, the war causes women and the riches of a city or an area to be corrupted and badly utilized, which is, looting becomes prevalent, and acquisition of women as captives (and later be made as wives of the warriors) becomes another social problem.

The Hitchickers Guide3 essays

The Hitchickers Guide3 essays The Hitchhikers guide to the galaxy is a wholly remarkable book. Thought many of the concepts are slightly abstract and obscure, the book itself is a truly great work. The basic idea is that the day we meet our adventurous crew is the single worst Thursday of Arthur Dents life. Sadly, it is not just Arthur who will be having a bad day. You see, it is this Thursday when the earth gets destroyed. Of all the billions of people on the planet, there was only one who knew what was to take place, and he himself was not even from earth. Ford Prefect, best friend of Arthur is a smooth talking quick thinking person for the remote planet of Betelgeuse five. As you were probably able to infer, Ford Prefect was not the name given to him by his parents, but instead the name of a car that was never popular, which he chose as his moniker, as to better fit in with the humans of earth. Our story begins with Arthur waking up early at his London flat (it was a British book). This was just like any other Thursday, except that outside, a demolition crew was beginning to destroy his house so that they will be able to create a highway bypass. This was news to Arthur. He did not know how they could do this without even warning him first. Upon questioning the foreman of the job, he was informed that the plans had been on record in the planning office for months. Sadly, the plans had been kept in the cellar where there is no nights, or stairs for that matter, in a disused lavatory, in the bottom of a locked file cabinet, with a sign that says Beware of the leopard. Arthurs decision at this point was to lie in front of the bulldozer, so that, without killing him, it would be impossible to destroy the house. Just at this point, Ford Prefect enters the scene. He tells Arthur that it is imperative that he goes to the bar with him, because after he tells him the news, he will need a stiff drink. Arthur explains the si...

Typical developmental pathways of Speech Language and Communication Essay

Typical developmental pathways of Speech Language and Communication - Essay Example The developmental pathways of speech, communication, and language start from when the child is about three months to when he or she is about three years, that is thirty-six months. By this age, the child has developed the basic skills and can communicate and understand some words. During the development of these three skills, in case a certain developmental concern is observed, intervention is critical. This is because it is easier to resolve problems related to these skills at early ages, however if the concerns are left untreated, the child may suffer from language, and speech impairments that affect the childs ability to use language learned later. It also affects how they learn new things, and how they behave in their later childhood and adolescence The pathways to child development are in ten groups from when the child is three months to when he or she is thirty-six months. In the third month the child should be able to, maintain eye contact, coo, goo, and smile, and cry differently for different needs, for example, when tired or hungry.in the third to sixth month the child is able to smile and quiet when spoken to. From six to nine months, the child should begin bubbling, express feelings and vocalizes to gain attention, the child should also be able to turn the head in order to follow sound and notice toys. The third stage of typical developmental pathways falls from nine to twelve months, at this stage the child can consistently respond to the own name when called, looks at familiar people and objects when mentioned. At this stage, the child can also follow routine commands associated with gestures, from twelve to fifteen months the child imitates speech sounds and understands up to fifty words. From fifteen month to the twenty-fourth months, the child shows improved skills in speech language and communication. From the twenty-fourth month onwards the child

Financial management of channel tunnel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Financial management of channel tunnel - Essay Example Eurotunnel was mainly financed by bank loans from a large consortium of over 100 European and Japanese banks. Eurotunnel also raised substantial amounts of equity in four public offerings during the construction of the Tunnel, mainly from small shareholders in France and the UK. The marketing of the shares was pitched towards small shareholders. In the end, the Channel Tunnel costs about 10 billion to build (compared with initial estimates 8 years earlier of about 5 billion). Of this 10 billion, 8 billion was raised in debt from banks and 2 billion in equity. The last fund-raising exercise took place in May 1994, just 2 months before the new services were to begin, when 800 million of new equity and 700 million of debt was raised to get the project finished and up and running. By then the banks and many shareholders were very nervous about the costs and delays to the project and the prospects of recouping their investment. Eurotunnel shareholders have seen their investment crumble by around 90% since the company went public in 1987. Construction costs spiralled and revenues fell short of forecasts, leaving the company struggling with debts of 9bn (6.4bn). Shareholders have never been paid a dividend. The UK government has already made it clear that there can be no question of any public money for Eurotunnel, and there is no change in that position. Eurotunnel shareholders are mostly French private investors. But it said it could not afford to do so without help in cutting the burden of repayments on debts which it ran up during vast cost over-runs on the tunnel's construction in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Euro tunnel begs for rescue plan (Clark, 2004)2. 2. Andrew, Clark, (2004) Guardian, retrieved from the website on 19th Feb' 06. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/) Financial Management of Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) is the largest civil engineering infrastructure project currently being constructed in the UK with a budget of 5.3 billion (S$14.8 billion). The Project is split into two sections. Section 1, 70 km long from the Channel Tunnel to Fawkham Junction in North Kent is scheduled for completion and operational running of Eurostar trains by September 2003. Section 2, 39 km long, completes the Link from North Kent to St Pancras in central London and is programmed to be operational in January 2007 (Davies and Joy, 2004)2. The London & Continental Railways Limited (LCR) was awarded the contract to build the CTRL in February 1996 and to run the British arm of the Eurostar International train service (Eurostar UK). Initially, LCR proposed to fund the construction of the link from private finance through debt and equity raised on the back of future revenue from Eurostar, UK and from direct government grants. This overtly optimistic plan backfired and LCR abandoned its plans to raise private finance and approached the Department for additional grants in return for a share of future profits. After reviewing the options, the department of transport decided to restructure the existing deal with LCR. In 1998, the government set out the principles of a negotiated restructuring which enhanced public

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Annotated Bibliography

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder - Annotated Bibliography Example in-reuptake inhibitors on (OCD) are adequate to deduce that a serotonin regulatory disorder is the most vital piece of the pathophysiology of OCD (2011). However, patients with OCD will require a high dosage of serotonin-reuptake inhibitor monotherapy. This may sometimes not be ample, and about half of patients are resistant to the treatment. The author states that previous studies indicate positive treatment reaction to dopaminergic antagonists. He infers that other neurotransmitter structures, like dopamine, are implicated in the pathophysiology of OCD. Evidence from Preclinical, neuroimaging and neurochemical researches demonstrates that the dopaminergic system is concerned in stirring up or infuriating indications pinpointing presence of OCD. The article reviews the dopaminergic system in OCD pathophysiology while reviewing the outcome of drugs that act on dopaminergic activity in OCD. Barrett PM, Farrell L, Pina AA, Peris TS, Piacentini J. (2008).Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 237:131–155. In this article, the authors state that the development of fear habituation and disappearance are thought to be related to the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders. This includes obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. The articles reports adjustments of auditory P50 suppression in human beings fear conditioning and extinction in fit control subjects. Furthermore, they report that P50 suppression in fear extinction is impaired in patients with OCD. The report explores investigations on the association between sensory gating and fear conditioning. Sensory gating mechanisms may be physiologically associated with fear conditioning, and OCD may involve abnormal sensory gating in fear extinction (Barret et al, 2008). Bloch, M. H., Williams, K and Pittenger, C. (2011). Glutamate abnormalities in obsessive

The Impact Of Structural Adjustment Programmes In Africa Finance Essay

The Impact Of Structural Adjustment Programmes In Africa Finance Essay Illustrating your answer with specific examples, evaluate the impact of structural adjustment programmes on agriculture in southern Africa. Introduction The impact of Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) on the performance of Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) has been deeply investigated and, despite what the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank claimed, adjustment policies have often had a negative impact on the poorest and most vulnerable sections of the regions population. In particular, The SAPs in Africa have certainly contributed to some changes in the agricultural sector: in a continent where more than 70 percent of the population is involved in agriculture, the last two decades have seen a relatively poor sectors performance, opposed to the post-independence condition of self-sufficiency of most of the regions countries (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987). This essay will look more deeply into some of the impacts of SAPs on agriculture, focusing on the experience of Zambia as an example of IMF adjustment programs which failed to fully address the nature of the countrys economic crisis, caused by both external causes and domestic policy shortcomings. After a brief introduction on the economic situation of the country and the factors that led to the adoption of SAPs, the essay will proceed by evaluating some of the main ways in which agriculture has been affected by structural adjustment programs, looking in particular at the consequences on production patterns as well as on the people involved in agriculture. The last section draws conclusions. I. During the last century, the role of agriculture in the Zambian economy and the policies associated to it have greatly varied. The country went from a flourishing self-sufficient agriculture of the pre-colonial period, to a neglected rural sector and a copper-dependent economy during the colonial period, to a return to agriculture as a way out of the economic crisis. During the colonial period (1890-1964), agricultural activity was divided among two classes of farmers: European settler farmers, supported by the state through advantageous policies, and African subsistence peasant farmers, used mainly as a labour reservoir, and to which access to good land was restricted (Mwanza, 1992). At this time, the role of agriculture was especially supportive to the provision of low priced food and cheap supplies of labour to the expanding industrial economy (ILO, 1987). Maize was the principal commodity constituting 90 percent of all marketed cereals, accompanied by secondary export commodities such as coffee, cotton, tobacco and groundnuts. At independence, the United National Independent Party (UNIP) attempted to diversify the economy by developing agriculture to secure food self-sufficiency and reduce the dependence on the copper industry. A single-channel marketing system, fixed agricultural producer prices, and subsidies in the maize area are examples of the policies put in place to offset the damage caused by an already declining mining industry (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987). However, such policy experiments did not reach their objectives, and Zambia went through economic deterioration in the 1970s due to both external shocks (oil crises and falling prices of copper), and inefficient domestic economic policies (e.g. a static and inflexible economic structure) (Seshamani, 1990). The government started to borrow in order to maintain the same levels of import, increasing the countrys indebtedness that reached unacceptable levels, for a total of almost $4.5 billion a t the end of 1982 (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). With no significant recovery of the economy, the increasing budget deficit obliged the government to start getting conditional loans within the framework of the IMF/WB SAPs. II. A first series of SAPs was adopted in Zambia between 1983 and 1987, with the aim of restoring the countrys financial stability through trade liberalization, currency devaluation, and reduction of government spending, including the removal of food and input subsidies (Saasa, 1996). Preliminary liberalization took place in the years 1983-1985, when a foreign exchange auction system was introduced. The IMF/WB program collapsed in 1987, mainly due to the unsustainable depreciation of the domestic currency (the Kwacha) that fell from a pre-auction rate of K 2.20 per US$ to K 21 per US$ of the last auction (Wulf, 1988). After a brief attempt by the Kaunda government to put up its own New Economic Recovery Programme between 1987- 1989, Zambia went back to the IMF/WB SAP starting from 1989, and the reform periods went on with the following government. In agriculture, the SAP aimed at promoting agricultural exports, improving food production and limiting government intervention in the market (Simatele, 2006). Before the introduction of SAPs, the government put in place highly subsidized measures to assist agricultural production growth such as crop-marketing depots that reached the entire country, the introduction of fixed crop prices, and provision of tractor ploughing services, credit and fertilizer (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). Such measures were replaced by agricultural adjustment policies that included the removal of subsidies, food prices decontrol, abolition of equity pricing, and liberalization of agricultural marketing (Mwanza, 1992). During the short period of the New Economic Recovery Programme, the Kaunda government failed to support agricultural development, and not surprisingly, given the fact that the same measures which undermined agricultural production and which led to foreign borrowings were re-adopted: revaluation of the kwacha, food subsidies, and price controls. But lets look at the consequences of reforms in more detail. The introduction of SAPs in Zambia affected agriculture in a number of ways. This essay will focus on the consequences on food production (in particular on changes in the cropping patterns), and on the people that practice agriculture, especially smallholders. The reforms had an impact on food production and cropping patterns due to two main factors: first, an increase in agricultural production costs, and second, a decrease in access to credit. Production costs rose in Zambia following a decrease in (i) the exchange rate, and (ii) agricultural subsidies. The countrys food production is dependent on the exchange rate especially in terms of input prices. The newly adopted foreign exchange auction system (1985) made it difficult for the government to plan a consistent pricing policy, and agriculture, as a priority sector for the economic restructuring, was uncompetitive in the foreign exchange auctions. As a consequence of the auctioning, the local currency (Kwacha) depreciated, increasing the prices of imported goods and inflation. Whereas a 50kg bag of fertilizer cost K26.75 during the 1984/5 season, it rose to K48 during the 1985/6 season (Sano, 1988). This had a strong impact on the very import sensitive Zambian farming. First, the production of the main crop, maize, is heavily dependent on imports of fertilizers and other items such as empty grain bags. Even though Zambia needs less fertilizer than other countries, as Mal awi, due to the abundance of good arable land, such input is by far the most important and most costly used, especially by small farmers. Second, petrol and trucks for the transport of agricultural produce must also be imported. These inputs are highly necessary in a country with a low level of population density and a skewed pattern of urbanization. As a consequence of exchange rate auctioning, production costs rose, and farm gate maize prices became less favourable, especially for small-scale maize producers in peripheral areas of the country (Jansen and Rukovo, 1992). With increasing input prices, the government, in order to maintain production, was obliged to augment producer prices correspondingly: maize reached K55 per bag in the1985/6 season (Sano, 1988). This, together with good weather conditions, contributed to the rise of agricultural output at a level of 9 percent of GDP in 1985 (Wulf, 1988). However, due to a higher rate of population growth, GDP was still declining. Th e rise of producer prices has been certainly beneficial, but the absence of infrastructural improvements and other consequences of liberalizations such as high inflation undermined output improvements. Before the reform period, the government both delivered inputs to, and collected outputs from farmers, even in the more remote areas. However, with the introduction of the SAPs in the 1980s, subsidies connected to agricultural production were severely reduced. Removal of food subsidies, previously put in place mainly to provide cheap food for urban residents, did not affect poor farmers (Sahn, 2004). However, the removal of other subsidies such as those on transport and on inputs did have an impact on agriculture, and especially on smallholders. The reduction of transport subsidies undermined farmers access to markets and increased the cost of production. Both small and large farmers were adversely affected by transport subsidy removals, but while large scale farmers suffered less from the price increase due to their closeness to markets and roads, the remoteness of many smallholders further increased their costs of production. Village processing was replaced by large-scale mills, ad ding extra transportation costs that, together with the absence of subsidies, made the food system highly inefficient, negatively affecting rural residents and their produce. Agricultural production was also affected. Being maize the major and most commercialized food crop in the country, its dependence on factors such as distance to markets and credit is higher than for other crops. As a study by the African Economic Research Consortium shows, maize has a negative response to distance from the market (Simatele, 2006). On the contrary, other crops such as cassava have mainly local basic markets, and their production is not as much affected by the removal of transport subsidies. The de-subsidization of agricultural inputs, as for example input credit or less costly fertilizer, also had an impact on agriculture. Their removal entailed a credit squeeze and caused an increase in production costs, negatively affecting especially small-scale food production. A second factor that had an impact on food production was the decline of access to credit. Before the introduction of SAPs, agricultural credit was provided by government-owned companies such as the Agricultural Finance company (AFC), and by commercial banks. Although commercial farmers have mainly financed their operations through private banks, smallholders have relied mostly on government loans, because of the low repayment rates connected to it. With the liberalization of the financial markets, credit and its pricing was no longer controlled, and farmers had to compete with other potential borrowers to get it. Credit provision was left mainly to the private sector, that failed in filling the gap. For smallholders it has been very difficult to obtain loans from financial institutions, both because of their exposition to high risks (i.e. physical conditions of the environment, health problems), and because of their isolation (poor transportation and communications). Because the pri vate sector often refused to serve the rural areas, the opportunity was left to local moneylenders, if present, to exploit their monopolistic positions and charge the small farmers high interest rates. In any case, interest rates escalated, causing a problem for loan repayment: from 43 percent in 1990, to 46 percent in 1991 (Geisler, 1992). In Solwezi District in the North Western Province, the progression of interest rates charged by Lima Bank during the 1993/94 cropping season reached 120% in September,1993 (Kajoba, et al,1995, p.9). Attempts to solve the problem of credit access, included those leaving smallholder credit provision to the private sector, most of the times resulted inefficient and failed. An example of such attempts is the launch of the Agricultural Credit Management Programme (ACMP) in 1994, which was meant to support the private sector in credit provision by giving fertilizers and seeds on credit through credit managers who would in turn provide these inputs to f armers through local credit coordinators (Pletcher, 2000). The ones that mostly benefited from this system have been the stockists and traders at the expense of smallholders. The problem of credit provision with liberalization continues to exist, and will probably persist as long as the private sector and the government do not reach an agreement on the development of efficient input supply networks. It is clear that SAPs in Zambia had a negative impact primarily on the smallholder subsector, that between 1980 and 1994 contributed about 40 percent of the agricultural output (Chiwele et al., 1998). The increase of production costs and the decrease in access to credit have introduced new difficulties for smallholders disposing of less means to overcome adverse conditions than commercial farmers. Moreover, while commercial farming systems are concentrated along the rail line, remote farmers, once relying on support of the state, have been cut off as the private sector was not able to fill the gap caused by liberalization. The new private sector-led marketing system initiated in 1992, in fact, has not so far been successful in carrying out its functions to the same extent as the cooperatives previously did. Most traders own very little transport and storage facilities and tend to depend on hired material. The bigger constraint, however, has been traders lack of access to capital. As a consequence of the marginalization of remote farmers, volatility and desperate selling right after the rains have increased, leading to a decrease of selling prices and a affecting of the market (Chiwele et al., 1998). Concerning cropping patterns, the adoption of SAPs and the cost increase have contributed to the rise in production of other crops as millet, sorghum, and cassava. In fact, even though today maize is still grown in large quantities in Zambia, from 1980 to 2005 Cassava production went from 360000 to 1056000 tons, while millet production from 20000 to 29583 tons (FAOSTAT, 2010). The area planted to maize declined 43 percent between 1989 and 1999. During the same period, the area planted to cotton increased by 65 percent, and the area for groundnuts grew by more than 100 percent (Mukherjee, 2002, p.27-28). Smallholders withdrawal from maize cultivation might be considered as a threat, in the sense that it would negatively affect the policy of self sufficiency in maize, leading to the need of importing the crop from the neighbouring countries (Sano, 1988). In mid-1987, only about 6.5 million bags of maize were expected from current harvest, necessitating large and costly imports of the s taple once again (Good, 1988, p.45). However, the introduction of maize as the main commercial crop was a post-independence policy that encouraged inefficiency and lack of differentiation by giving incentives to the farmers to move away from the production of other crops into maize. But the ecology of the country makes it more suited for certain crops than others, according to the area of cultivation. Maize is ecologically suited to less than half of the country, and requires new skills and large labour and capital inputs in comparison to other starch staples (Mkandawire and Bourenane, 1987, p. 292). The dominance on one crop partially explains why less than 20 percent of the countrys arable land was under cultivation (Saasa, 1996). In the period pre-SAPs, the government introduced rural development programs that promoted the cultivation of maize as a cash and food crop. Rising subsidies have coincided with the rapid advance of maize production, even in areas where it previously had a minor role (i.e. parts of the Northern Province). Such policy made small-scale farmers dependent on the government, on both subsidies provision (as those on fertilizers, transport, marketing and credit), and on a single cereal (Kajoba, 2009). Adjustment reforms have shifted the attention to competing grains and tubers i.e. millet, sorghum, and cassava for a number of reasons. First, these crops are generally cultivated with little or no chemical dressings, requiring much less inputs (Kydd, 1988). Second, they have mainly local basic markets, and their production is not so much dependent on transport services, and therefore subsidies. This also affects the issue of access to markets, which has been decreasing for smallholders with the liberalization reforms. Third, these crops are drought resistant and more traditional in some parts of the country than maize, and their production might contribute to an increased efficiency on the food system, as harvest fluctuations might be red uced and marketed food supply might be more regular. Also, alternative crops sometimes have non-monetary credit available, allowing easier forms of repayment by farmers. For these reasons, a gradual move away from maize might even be beneficial to agriculture to some extent, as it could contribute to an increased efficiency of the food system. Moreover, in the long term, an increase in the production of cheap un-subsidized food could provide a more sustainable solution. CONCLUSION This essay has looked at some of the main consequences on agriculture of policy reform measures undertaken through structural adjustment programmes in Zambia. Both production patterns and smallholder farmers were affected by the reforms. Production costs rose following a decrease in the exchange rate and in agricultural subsidies, and access to credit decreased following liberalization. These patterns negatively affected especially small-scale farmers, unable to cope with increasingly adverse production conditions, while left the bigger, commercial farmers closer to the market better off. Improvements in the small-scale sector have further been undermined by problems in the provision of agricultural support services by private actors. Alternative crops are increasingly grown as a consequence of rising production costs related to maize, and this pattern might provide a solution for a more sustainable and more efficient food system. Certainly, the countrys situation pre-SAPs and the in efficiency of its agricultural policies required some kind of reforms: a food system focused on maize, a structure of production and consumption along the line of rail and in the copperbelt, a transport system sustained by subsidies and an export agriculture affected by an overvaluation of the exchange rate (Sano, 1988). However, the enforcement of a standard package of policy measures has proven unsuccessful in addressing the nature of Zambias economic crisis. SAPs focused excessively on price policy reforms, that have been not able to induce agricultural growth alone. Price stabilisation programmes need to be carefully designed so as not to turn into a fiscal drain and an obstacle to production diversification. Reforms in agriculture are still taking place and policies are therefore still changing. Credit access, input markets design and the way through which institutions can enhance smallholder agriculture are areas that require a particular attention when formulating policies th at will enhance the countrys agricultural potential.

Concept of Consent :: Health Care, Nursing

Recent developments in standard of care and professional relationship with patients have made law fundamental to the study and practice of nursing. At every stage of patients care, law helps bring up to date nursing practice and it is essential that nurses understand the legal and ethical implications of law in their nursing profession (Griffith and Tengrah, 2011). The purpose of this essay is to discuss the concept of consent in relation to the role of the nurse. This will aim at demonstrate ethical and legal implication of consent on nursing practice and professional working. In the Code (2008, cited in Griffith and Tengrah, 2011) the Nursing and Midwifery Council set standards for nursing professional to follow. Among the rules is the requirement of nurses to obtain consent before care is given. Consent is an issue of concern for all healthcare professional when coming in contact with patients either in a care environment or at their home. Consent must be given voluntary or freely, informed and the individual has the capacity to give or make decisions without fear or fraud (Mental Capacity Act, 2005 cited in NHS choice, 2010). The Mental Capacity Act perceives every adult competent unless proven otherwise as in the case of Freeman V Home Office, a prisoner who was injected by a doctor without consent because of behavioural disorder (Dimond, 2011). Consent serves as an agreement between the nurse and the patient, and allows any examination or treatment to be administered. Nevertheless, consent must be obtained in every occurrence of care as in the case of Mohr V William 1905 (Griffith and Tengrah, 2011), where a surgeon obtain consent to perform a procedure on a patient right ear. The surgeon found defect in the left ear of the patient and repaired it assuming he had obtained consent for both ear. The patient sued him and the court found the surgeon guilty of trespassing. Although there is no legal requirement that states how consent should be given, however, there are various ways a person in care of a nurse may give consent. This could be formal (written) form of consent or implied (oral or gesture) consent. An implied consent may be sufficient for taking observation or examination of patient, while written is more suitable for invasive procedure such as surgical operation (Dimond, 2011). Furthermore, in nursing, professional may have to decide on a course of action that is ethically, legally and morally correct or acceptable by their society.