Lithium Essays -- Chemistry Medical Chemical Papers

Lithium Though the drug lithium is used for a number of disorders ranging from acute depression to eating and personality disorders (Paykel, 1992), it's primary use is for bipolar disorder, also known as manic depression. Patients with bipolar disorder "between two poles: depression and its opposite, mania" (Kalat,2004), often with periods of normal behavior in between (Jamison,1993). In addition, the patient is also prone to "mixed episodes" in which symptoms of both mania and depression are present. Intensity of these episodes can range from mild to dangerous, as in the case of a manic depressive mother who severed the arms of her 10 month old daughter (Associated Press, 2005). Despite its genetic origin (Kalat. 2004; Jamison, 1993; DBSA, 2005), the onset of symptoms and behavior is rather late, averaging 18 years of age (Jamison, 1993). There are two types of manic episodes: manic and hypomanic. The DSM describes a manic episode as "a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood," (Jamison, 1993). Symptoms include inflated self esteem, a reduced need for sleep, increased talkativeness and sociability, flight of ideas, distractibility, an increase in goal directed activities (such as work, school or sex), and an excessive involvement in pleasurable activities (PsychologyNet, 2003). The occurrence of these symptoms must not be able be confused with a mixed state (see description below), must impair the individual's ability to function normally, and cannot be explained by the effects of a substance (i.e. alcohol, hallucinogenics) or a medical condition (i.e. hyperthyroidism) in order for the episode to be considered "manic.... ..." The Icarus Project. Retrieved February 28, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://theicarusproject.net/community/viewtopic.php?t=1187 CONCLUSION Lithium, or, more commonly, Lithium Salt, is an element used to treat bipolar disorder in humans. Bipolar disorder consists of severe highs and lows of mood, ranging from deep depression to extreme mania. The cycling of the disorder depends on the person, but it can vary from many shifts within one day (rapid cycling) to extended periods of each. Lithium is indicated primarily for patients who are not rapid cycling. Like many other medications, the exact effects of Lithium are unknown. Psychiatrists and Chemists have isolated many of the physiological and behavioral changes that occur after the administration of Lithium, and yet the exact cause of its therapeutic effect is not fully understood.

Proverbs in Things Fall Apart

Proverbs are wise sayings that address the heart of the discourse in any given context, truthfully and objectively. In Africa and in Nigerian cultures especially, they are considered the reliable horses, which convey meanings to their destinations or hearts of the listeners. This study investigates aspects of the meaning of proverbs in the work of a Nigerian author, Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. It is contended that meanings of Nigerian proverbs can be worked out within the semantic, referential, ideational, stimulus-response, realist and contextual theories. Types of meaning and proverbs are addressed and situated within the two works. It is advanced that proverbs play significant roles in clarifying, exemplifying, underscoring and influencing communication . With the broadly analyzed proverbs, the study attempts to further demonstrate the vitality of semantics and pragmatics in negotiating meaning especially in a second language context. Proverbs are common features of conversational eloquence in many African cultures, especially in Nigeria. Such â€Å"wise sayings† are usually acquired and learnt from listening to the elders’ talk. Given the vintage position that the elders occupy in various African traditions as the human repository of communal or primordial wisdom, they are the masters of eloquence, rhetoric and meaning. They are the ones who know how to impregnate short expressions with vast meanings, implicating the proverb, â€Å"it is the elder’s mouth that determines a ripe kola nut†. Several definitions of the term â€Å"proverb† abound in literature. The central idea in the definitions is that a proverb is â€Å"an adage, saying, maxim, precept, saw or any synonym of such that expresses conventional truth†. From Things Fall Apart The sun will shine on those who stand before it shines on those who kneel under them p. 6 Theory: Referential Type: Denotative/Connotative Analysis: The proverb makes reference to a cosmic body, the sun, with a view to evoking its sense – that those who strive and work (by remaining standing) will benefit from the fruit of their work before those who depend on them (by kneeling or deriving succor from them). While the inference of discouraging dependency can be made, the message is mainly that those who do not face the challenges of life and work assiduously defying sunshine should satisfy themselves with the crumbs that fall from the table of the hardworking ones. The proverb discourages laziness and implies the need for everyone to be hard-working. If a child washed his hands, he could eat with kings. p. 6 Theory: Realist Types: Denotative, thematic Analysis: The proverb portrays the honor and dignity attributed to cleanliness and responsibility. It thematizes hands washing, a good character training and hygienic way of eating as a sine qua non to honor. We infer that if a person does the right thing at the right time, as the proverb entails good fortune, honor, reverence, esteem and credit will be his, just like eating together with kings. The pragmatic understanding of how really high the Nigerians rate their traditional rulers provides a further clue to the semantic import of the proverb. 3 When the moon is shining, the cripple becomes hungry for a walk. p. 9. Theory: Referential Types: Collocative, Stylistic Analysis: Reference is made to another cosmic body, the moon, in this proverb, as â€Å"shining† collocates with â€Å"the moon† and â€Å"cripple† collocates metaphorically with â€Å"walk†. The sense of the proverb lies in the cause-effect theory that if motivation is given, action arises. In essence, night is conventionally taken as a period of rest but in a situation where there is moon-light, not only the able-bodied feels the need to walk or work in the night but even the cripple does. Night is implied and not stated for stylistic purposes while â€Å"hungry†, a marked word that ordinarily does not apply to â€Å"walk†, is also used for stylistic effect. The underlining message is that a good cause or motivation occasions a good effect or line of action. 4 A man who pays respect to the great paves the way for his own greatness p. 14. Theory: Stimulus-Response Types: Denotative, Affective. Analysis: There is a tact advice almost coinciding with the English proverb, â€Å"one good turn deserves another† here. If a person accords honor or reverence to the successful ones, it is likely that he is also going to be successful. In other words, the sense of the proverb is that a person who helps another man helps himself indirectly as he gets familiar with what that man engages in – and this will ultimately lead him also to greatness, directly or indirectly. 5 A toad does not run in the daytime for nothing. 15 Theory: Ideational Types: Denotative/Stylistic Analysis: The proverb tasks our mental conception or general knowledge of the toad as a nocturnal animal. If such an animal therefore does â€Å"run† (a lexical item preferred by the author for metaphorical or stylistic effect, against the normal collocative word, â€Å"jump†) in the day, there must be something amiss. The sense of the proverb is that there is a cause for anything strange that happens; there must be a reason, at least â€Å"no smoke without fire†. A toad running in daytime is probably pursuing something or certainly something is pursuing it. It has to do with the â€Å"cause-effect† relationship. An old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb. p. 15 Theory: Stimulus – Response Types: Denotative/Thematic Analysis: This proverb also exhibits â€Å"causes-effect† relationship as it thematises the old woman. It means that people who have negative features feel disturbed when such features are being highlighted. There is the effect or response of uneasiness with reference to the dry bones because an old woman whose dry bones are signs of impending death is always scared of death. The sense of the proverb, essentially, is that conscience worries people of negative attributes even when they are not addressed but their excesses (so to say) are being condemned. The lizard that jumped from the high Iroko tree to the ground said he would praise himself if no one else did. p. 16. Theory: Referential Types: Denotative/Connotative Analysis: The proverb elicits the self-contentment and joy of good work. A good work, we can infer, is itself commendable whether people appreciate it or not. Reference is made to the lizard which nods after any activity it engages in, implicating its self-praise. The animal is personified for poetic effect. The English equivalent of â€Å"if you don’t blow your trumpet, nobody will blow it for you† may further illustrate the sense of the proverb – that if you do not appreciate your worth and dignify yourself, people may not bother to do it for you. Eneke the bird says since men have learnt to shoot without missing, he has learnt to fly without perching. . 16. Theory: Referential Types: Denotative/Connotative Analysis: Like the previous proverb, this proverb derives its message from folklore, in which human attributes are given to animals/non-human creatures. The meaning is both literal and figurative as well as multi-dimensional in scope. Changing situations give birth to innovations. If students, for example, develop novel means of cheating in the examinations, referentially, the authorities also devise ipso facto, new strategies of apprehending or detecting the cheats. When a man says yes, his Chi says yes also. p. 9 Theory: Ideational Types: Denotative/Connotative. Analysis: The proverb aptly sums up the essence of determination and strong will, within one’s psychological context. Reference to chi, a person’s personal god in Igbo culture, is of connotative import. The message interpreted is that man must always take decisive decisions for himself and resolve to do whatever he tasks himself to do for that will always be the will of his supposed â€Å"god†. A possible English equivalent is that â€Å"heavens help those who help themselves†, and as such, man should always be responsible for all his actions. A chick that will grow into a cock can be spotted the very day it hatches. p. 46 Theory: Realist Types: Denotative/Connotative. Analysis: The proverb explores the logical sequence of things/ phenomena: that a general analysis can be made from specific traits. In the real world, from the initial stage, from countenance and appearance, one is able to identify the good, the bad and the ugly. The reference to the chick in our psyche is illustrative: the chick that will not live long will probably look frail and sickly, right from the day it is hatched. Our actions, at particular times, are indices of our character, the proverb tells us. A child’s finger is not scalded by a piece of hot yam which its mother puts into its palm. p. 47 Theory: Contextual Types: Denotive/Collocative Analysis: Given the contextual/pragmatic knowledge of a mother’s love for her child especially in the Nigerian cultures, it is implied that whatever she does, even if such superficially appears harmful, will be of benefit to the child. This is because it is presupposed that nobody loves a child better than his/her mother. Thus, the sense of the proverb, which for effect parades â€Å"child/mother†, â€Å"finger/palm†, â€Å"a piece of hot yam† etc collocates, is that love bears no harm. If there is love, there is no need for reservation in taking a beloved’s piece of advice, whether one considers it good or not, because a beloved person will not recommend a harmful antidote for whom he loves. 12 If one finger brought oil, it soiled the others. p. 87. Theory: Ideational Types: Denotative/Connotative/Stylistic Analysis: The proverb underlines the concept of collective responsibility: what one does implicates the involvement of the others. With tact reference to our knowledge or ideas of the world, if a finger is dipped into the oil, other fingers get smeared alongside since they are together. In other words, a shameful act by a person brings shame, odium and opprobrium to him and by extension, to his family and community. Stylistic considerations impinge on the choice of â€Å"brought† and â€Å"soiled† from the existing alternatives – which could further communicate the same idea. A child cannot pay for its mother’s milk. p. 117 Theory: Realist Types: Connotative/Collocative. Analysis: This proverb anchors an axiomatic fact: certain things are unquantifiable or priceless. No matter how much the child gives the mother later in life, such is not worth her milk, given the child at infancy. By extension, kindness, love (and such virtues) cannot be fully reciprocated, as they are inestimably valuable. Collocates like â€Å"child, mother, milk† enhance the sense of the meaning. An animal rubs its aching flank against a tree, a man asks his kinsman to scratch him p. 17. Theory: Realist/Stimulus-Response Types: Connotative/Stylistic. Analysis: By drawing our attention to the real world of human-animal behavioral patterns, the proverb draws a line between a human being and an animal. The proverb is suggestive of the social nature of man, and the fact that â€Å"no man is an Island†. The proverb suggests that it is love that distinguishes men from a nimals. People who do not seek their fellow human beings’ help when in danger or difficulty are therefore animalistic. Marked word patterns like â€Å"aching†, â€Å"flank†, â€Å"kinsman†, â€Å"rubs†, â€Å"scratch†, that one would ordinarily prefer other words for, are used for stylistic purposes, engendering the connotative, figurative sense. Living fire begets cold, impotent ash. p. 118 Theory: Ideational Types: Connotative/Stylistic Analysis: The sense engendered by this epigrammatic statement is the vanity of arrogance. By creating the image/idea of fire in our mind, we are implicitly told that fire flares up in pride but its consequence is cold, impotent ash. The connotative meanings of â€Å"cold† and â€Å"impotent† are quite essential and their stylistic association with ash lends credence to the force of the meaning. Both fire and â€Å"ash† conjure in us human qualities – the fire gives birth to a cold and impotent child in ash. The sense of the proverb or its message is that people should be good and level-headed when they are opportune (to be in a position) or alive; for, when they lose such position and die, they become useless and unwanted – subsequently becoming objects of public disdain.

Essay about Features of Post Modern Fictions - 2385 Words

Some of the dominant features of postmodern fictions include temporal disorder, the erosion of the sense of time, a foregrounding of words as fragmenting material signs, a pervasive and pointless use of pastiche, loose association of ideas, paranoia and the creation of vicious circles or a loss of destination between separate levels of discourse, which are all symptoms of the language disorders of postmodernist fictions. The postmodern novel may be summed up as: †¢ Late modernism. †¢ Anti-modernism. †¢ Not avant-garde tendency (may be avant-garde within a literary period). †¢ Emphasizes plot than character. †¢ Characters are fragmented/multiple. †¢ Experimental. †¢ Misogynist. †¢ Denigration of female writers. †¢ Matter of packaging. †¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦Choudhary states: The major feature of this kind of fiction lies in the subversion of the assumptions and generic traits and function of fiction, including modernist novel. Generically postmodernist fiction is self-questioning in nature, skeptical about its possibilities, rules and principles. Its function is disillusionary; it dives into the underside of fiction and explodes its fallacies†¦Postmodernist text directs itself to the suspension of meaning by using disruptive narrative, polyphony, multiple ending and the like thereby frustrating intelligibility. It is devoid of teleology and causality (12). Some critics are of the view that postmodern fictions do not convey any moral values and imparts untrue elements. â€Å"In a postmodern word, literature is just another text. You can forget all that stuff about truth and value—and other alienating lies perpetual by a deliberately selective version of history controlled by crazy power freaks and their lackey dupes. ‘Truth’ is o nly what circulates as such: hence the importance of technology and the media to an understanding of ‘our’ world today. ‘Values’ are only effects of cultural traditions; hence the importance of becoming cynical today, in order not to be suppressed under the suffocating of ‘culture’ and ‘tradition’† (Lucy viii). A.S.D. Pillai states that: The contemporary cultural situation, the postmodern text reveals in its construction a world of valueless vaudeville. 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Leadership Styles Of The Anime Show Essay - 1511 Words

Any organization or group of people, no matter how different, all have something in common. That is that within these groups of people, someone is in charge. If not because they were specifically put in power, then simply because people , for some reason or another, just listen to what they say. And just as there are and have been many leaders of various groups and organizations, there are also different styles of leading. Some methods for leading are, naturally, alot more effective than others. To effictively delve into leadership styles, it seems like an obvious option is to actually examine a couple of leaders, while comparing their leadership styles. Therefore, One that will be examined is a fictitious leader from the anime show, One Piece. The Characters Name is Monkey D. Luffy, and he is the leader of a pirate crew which is named the Straw Hat Pirates, After the infamous straw hat that Luffy wears. And who will be compared to the pirate captain? A very real non-fictional histo ric war vet, and once dictator of germany, Adolf Hitler. Both have been in the position of power and displayed their leadership abilities and now those leaders styles will be analyzed, to reveal various similarities, and expose the differences in leadership techniques used by both. So to start off, they will be compared before they are contrasted, but in what ways can the leader of Nazi Germany be compared to the main character of japanese cartoon show? 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Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated Essay

Essays on Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated Essay The paper "Financial Performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated" is an outstanding example of an essay on finance and accounting.   The cost-volume-profits analysis in this paper will involve the financial performance of Leggett Platt, Incorporated. The furniture manufacturing company has recorded poor performance in 2011 compared to 2010. However, the company remained in good financial health because it had a current ratio of 2.09 and an acid ratio of 1.16. The firm is also profitable as indicated by its 0.19 ratio and 0.28 ratio as returns on assets. This shows how the firm has managed to efficiently manage its assets. In terms of leverage, Leggett Platt, Incorporated has a strong equity position because it uses less leverage. The firm has also recorded a high inventory turnover as indicated by a ratio of 8.24. The firm should consider improving its profits margin by reducing its expenses and increasing its sales revenue. It should consider making improvements to the collectio n of its accounts receivables because it has a very low ratio of 1.17. The computations of the ratio figures are listed in the appendix.   The furniture manufacturing firm has costs in terms of fixed, variable and mixed costs. The fixed costs may include land for factory, buildings, machinery equipment and office equipment, Variable costs may include materials, labor, office supplies and fuel for the factory. Mixed costs include the combination of labor with land for the factory. In my opinion, the standard version single is the most appropriate for the furniture business. This is because the costing method enables such a business to establish deviations in costs from the standard costs during the production process (American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, 2007). Ratio analysis is of importance to any business because it can be used in detecting fraud through the computation of variance in transactions. The variance is then used in calculating ratios for specific numbers. Some of the ratios commonly used in detecting fraud include maximum/minimum ratio, maximum/2nd highest and field 1/field 2 (American Ins titute of Certified Public Accountants, 2007). The detection of fraud aids the business in developing ethic standards for its employees hence maintaining high levels of good behavior.

Self-Access Learning Free Essays

Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. We will write a custom essay sample on Self-Access Learning or any similar topic only for you Order Now my/PP/SAL/index. html3/31/2005 12:04:49 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning INTRODUCTION Self-Access Learning (SAL) was first introduced and piloted in SRK Sri Kelana, Selangor Darul Ehsan in 1990. Since then it has been extended to 150 schools in Malaysia. It was initiated by the Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. The contents of the book focus on an Overview of SAL, Setting up a Self- Access Centre, Learning Materials and Equipment, Learners Training and SAL in Operation. Sample materials to give teachers and insight into SAL are also included. Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (1 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (2 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (3 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Introduction to Self-Access Learning file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/introduction. html (4 of 4)3/31/2005 12:04:56 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 1 Self-Access | Self-Access Learning (SAL) | Objectives | Main Features file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1a. htm3/31/2005 12:05:06 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Self-Access OVERVIEW Self- access is a system which allows pupils learn at their own pace and time using organized learning materials and equipment. Self-Access Learning (SAL) Self -access learning (SAL) at the primary school level refers to independent learning through the use of learning materials. It is linked to the prescribed curriculum. Pupils are given opportunity to their own activities, correct and evaluate their own work as well as monitor their own progress. Philosophy of SAL file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1. tml (1 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 The concept of SAL is based on the following:q q q q q q every pupil is an individual with different needs, interest, attitudes and aptitudes. every pupil learns in different ways and at varied rates. every pupil is responsible for his or her own learning. every pupil is given the oppo rtunity to learn how to learn. the teacher caters for all individual needs of the pupils. the teacher creates a conducive, tension – free learning environment. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter1. html (2 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Objectives of SAL q q q q to provide opportunities for pupils to learn how to learn. to cater for the pupils’ individual needs and learning styles. to allow pupils to evaluate and assess their own learning. to complement classroom teaching and learning. Main Features of SAL file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (3 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (4 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Introduction SETTING UP A SELF- ACCESS CENTRE A self- Access Centre (SAC) is a resource where organized learning materials and equipment are made available and accessible for pupils. In the SAC, materials and equipment such as journals, w orksheets, cassette tapes, video tapes, computer assisted language learning (CALL) file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (5 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 rogrammes, games, radio cassette recorders sets and video recorders are placed and organized systematically. Functions of the SAC ? Provides conducive learning environment ? Provides opportunities for pupils to carry out learning activities. ? Houses learning materials and equipment. ? Displays information charts and pupils work. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (6 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Factors to be considered when setting up a SAC Location The SAC can be a room by itself, a corner in classroom or in the school resource centre. It should also be easily accessible. In schools with limited rooms or space, teachers can arrange the materials in boxes which can be mobilized to the classroom whenever necessary. Design The design should be conducive to individual learning styles as well as small group interaction. It should be attractive and appealing to the pupils. Layout The layout is the arrangement of furniture, materials and equipment in the SAC. They should be placed in such a way where the pupils can move easily. The SAC would include the following: q q q Reading corner Computer Assisted Language Learning corner Carrels for listening ile:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (7 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 q q q q Video viewing corner Games corner Working area Display area A SAMPLE PLAN OF A SAC IN A SRC SAMPLE PLAN OF A SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1 . html (8 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Books and print materials To ensure that the materials last, worksheets may be mounted onto cards and laminated o sealed in plastic. Each item is then arranged in separate boxes which are colour-coded for the language proficiency level. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (9 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 Equipment Cassette recorders are the most necessary equipment. They are used for practising listening and speaking skills. The activity cards accompanying the tapes are labelled, colour-coded and placed on shelves. Computers are excellent aids to SAL. Television sets and video recorders enable pupils to listen and watch English programmes. Time Teachers need time to set up the SAC and to prepare pupils to learn independently. It may take between 3 or 6 months before the SAC can be setup and be functional. Funds Setting up SAC needs time and money. If there is limited fund, teachers have to set priority and seek for assistance or sponsorship. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (10 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (11 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 1 A SAC SK Seri Perlis, Perlis A SAC corner in a resource centre SRK Tengku Abdul Halim, Alor Star, Kedah A SAL corner in a resource centre. SK Kampung Baru Keningau, Sabah Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter1. html (12 of 12)3/31/2005 12:05:21 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Chapter 2 | Functions of the SAC | Factors to be considered when setting up a SAC ile:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter2a. htm3/31/2005 12:05:32 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 3 Introduction to Chapter 3 | Types of SAL worksheets Type of Self Access Language Learning Materials | Classification code for Worksheet Guidelines for writing worksheets | Procedures for writing worksheets | Checklist for evaluation Self-Access Classification Code for English at Primary School Level file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. pm. my/p/sal/chapter3aa. htm3/31/2005 12:05:44 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Chapter 3 SELF-ACCESS LANGUAGE LEARNING MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Self-access language learning materials are self instructional materials written or adapted by teachers. They are made available and accessible to the pupils to work individually, in pairs or in groups with or without direct supervision from the teacher. The materials should cater for the pupils learning styles, abilities and interests. The materials written or adapted are based on the language skills, thinking skills, grammar and vocabulary. They may be learning materials, practice materials or test materials. Types of SAL worksheets Type of Self Access Language Learning Materials | Classification code for Worksheet Guidelines for writing worksheets | Procedures for writing worksheets | Checklist for evaluation Self-Access Classification Code for English at Primary School Level file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (1 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Types of SAL Worksheets Practice worksheet | Test worksheet | Back to Chapter 3 Main Page | Home 1. Learning worksheet Learning worksheets are those which contain information and explanation for the pupils to read, understand and apply them. Example of a learning worksheet: Yr. 6/Ep3/Blue/(07)/( ) Instructions: i. Read the sentences carefully. ii. Study the diagram below. We use ‘a’ when the noun begins with a consonant, but if the noun begins with a vowel sound, ‘an’ is used. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (2 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Task: Fill in the blanks with ‘a’ or ‘an’. Example: I have †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. en. I have a pen 1. Pulau Gaya is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. island off Sabah. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (3 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. Malaysia has †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. hot and wet climate. 3. Draw †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. line across this circle. 4. My brother Abu is †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ kite maker. 5. My sister often takes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. apple to school. 6. Mary’s mother bought her †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. new umbrella. 7. You cannot make †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. omelette without breaking eggs. 8. Puan Farida has †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. very pretty white cat. Yr 6/EP 3/Blue/(07)/( ) Answer Key 1. an 3. a 5. an 7. an 2. a 4. a 6. a 8. a file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (4 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. Practice worksheets Practice worksheets give pupils the opportunity to reinforce the skills learnt in the classroom. The exercises include: * problem solving * games and puzzles Example of a practice worksheet: Yr4/R2. 1/Red/(03)/( ) Instructions: 1. Look at the pictures for the clues. 2. Copy the puzzle into your SAL book. . Complete the puzzle. 4. Check your answers with the answer key. Task: Rearrange the letters to find out the names of the things in the picture below. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (5 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Yr4/R2. 1/Red/(03)/( ) file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (6 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Answer key 1. 3. 5. 7. 9. TREES TRACTOR CLOUD PATH BRIDGE 2. 4. 6. 8. FIELD MOUNTAIN HEDGE GATE 10. RIVER 12. FENCE 11. TIN Example of practice worksheet Yr4/R4. 7/RED/05/( ) Instructions: 1. Look at the picture. 2. Read the questions. 3. Write your answers in your SAL Book. 4. Check your answers with your teacher. Task: Poh Quan is going to do something. What is she going to do? Why? file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (7 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 3. Test Worksheets file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (8 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Test worksheet contain exercises given to pupils to test how much they have understood and learnt. Example of a test worksheet. Yr. 6/EP 3/(Blue)/(08)/( ) Instructions: 1. Do this exercise in your SAL book 2. Read the sentences carefully. 4. Check your answers with the answer key. Task: Fill in the blanks with ‘a’ or ‘an’. Did you see †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (1) old lady with †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (2) umbrella walking here about †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (3) hours ago? She was wearing †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (4) apron and †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (5) unusual hat. She had †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6) animal with her that had yellow feathers. Was the animal †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (7) elephant? Was it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (8 ) anteater? Was it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (9) ostrich? Could it be †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (10) yellow bird? Yr. /EP3/(Blue)/(08)/( ) Answer key 1. an 6. an file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (9 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 2. an 3. an 4. an 5. BRIDGE 7. 8. 9. an an an 10. a TYPES OF SELF ACCESS LANGUAGE LEARNING MATERIALS file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. y/pp/sal/chapter3. html (10 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Worksheets are essential in SAL. They are self-instructional and written or adapted based on the English Language KBSR syllabus 1982. The pupils who use these worksheets are learning from them with the teacher as a facilitator. Therefore teachers have to be precise, clear and appropriate when writing instructions. The format of a SAL worksheet is given be low. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (11 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (12 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 a. Classification code enables the pupils to find the worksheets they need. It is written on the top right hand corner. It gives the following information: Year: Year 4 (Yr4) Year 5 (Yr. 5) Year 6 (Yr. 6) Skills: R L W EP – Reading – Listening – Writing – Examination practice Sub-skills: R1 – Recognise and Read file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. html (13 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 R2 R3 R4 R5 – Read and Match – Read and Group – Read and Comprehend – Dictionary skills Level: The worksheets are graded to 3 levels of language proficiency: Green – elementary Red Blue – intermediate – advance Activity type Each piece of worksheet has a number which indicates the type of activity for the pupils to work on. The following are examples of activities for reading. 01 Read Match 02 Read Draw 03 Read Arrange 04 Read Sequence 05 Read Solve 06 Read Group 07 Read Answer file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. tml (14 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 08 Read Complete 09 Read Join 10 Read Choose 11 Read Follow 12 Read Correct errors Note: Teachers may add more activities using their own numbers. Copy number: This number indicates which copy the worksheet is. First copy – (1) Second c opy – (2) Third copy – (3) e. g. b. Instruction c. Task d. Answer key These are instruction for the pupils to follow. This is the actual exercise. Answer provided at the back of the worksheets for the pupils to check and correct. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter3. tml (15 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 Guidelines for writing worksheets * * * The worksheets should be attractive. The variety of tasks, exercises and activities should be motivating an challenging. The worksheets should be graded according to the pupils’ level of language proficiency. Procedure for writing worksheets file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (16 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 * * * * Identity the classification code (The classification code is given on page 22) Give clear and precise instructions. Set the task and plan the activities. Provide an answer key. Checklist for evaluation The following questions need to be asked and answer when one is evaluation SAL worksheet. a. Does the activity give a clear picture of the skills it is focusing? b. Does the activity give a clear picture of the language item or skill to be learnt or reinforced c. Does the worksheet fit in the following category: file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (17 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 3 * learning? * practice? * test? d. Does the feedback take the following form: * an answer key? * a discussion with the teacher? * a discussion with a friend? * a model made by the pupil? e. Does the activity encourage creative and critical thinking? Writing SAL worksheets is a very challenging task. If we reflect on how our pupils will benefit from SAL we will work at it for â€Å"Tomorrow’s comfort requires today’s hardwork. † Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter3. html (18 of 18)3/31/2005 12:05:54 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools CHAPTER 4 What is Learner Training | Why Learner Training | Aims | Teacher’s Role Implementation of Learner Training Activities | Bridging The Gap Activities Learner Independence Activities | Language Awareness Activities Preparation of Pupils for SAL | Learner Orientation | Sample Questionaire 1 Sample Questionaire 2 | Sample Questionaire 3 | Placement Test for Year 4 | SAL Booklet file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4a. htm3/31/2005 12:06:10 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Chapter 4 LEARNER TRAINING What is Learner Training? Learner Training refers to a process of training the pupils to become more effective active learners during SAL period. It also means preparing pupils to learn how to learn; to work independently with or without teacher supervision. In learner training pupils must be trained to learn how to use self-access materials such as worksheets, books and equipment such as cassette recorders, video recorders and computers. Learner Training also trains pupils in self-assessment. Why Learner Training? The rationale for Learner Training is: file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (1 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 to train pupils to learn how to learn. to familiarise pupils with the use of the Self-Access Centre. to make pupils aware of the various materials and equipment found in the SAC. to create readiness in pupils to learn the English Language independently. Aims To help pu pils become effective learners and be responsible for their own learning. To help pupils focus their attention on how to learn rather than what to learn. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. tm (2 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 The Teacher’s role in Learning Training Encourages group interaction among pupils in the classroom. Helps pupils to be aware of the wide range of strategies for language learning. Creates a learning environment where pupils feel they can experiment with their own language learning. Counsels and guide pupils when possible. Prepares the pupils to learn on their own. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (3 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Implementation of Training Activities Learner training activities are not introduced separately but they are integrated in the daily English Language lesson. These activities are elements woven into the â€Å"fabric† of a daily English Language lesson and have been introduced to the pupils even before SAL was introduced in the school. Components of learner training activities for SAL at the primary school level are: Bridging the gap activities Preparation of pupils for SAL Pupil Orientation of the SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (4 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Bridging the gap activities These are activities that prepare pupils for independent learning. They are: Activities which Develop Social Skills in Pupils The pupils working in the SAC will have to share the materials and take turns to use the equipment. Teachers need to plan activities which train and develop the pupil’s awareness of oneself as well as the needs of sharing materials ability to choose the kind of materials and equipment to use and what to do should someone else chooses to use them at the same time; and responsibility for their actions. Some activities which develop pupils’ social skills, are: making them group eaders when doing work giving them duties to do after practical work organising competitions to see which area is the cleanest after pupils do practical work file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (5 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Learner Independence Act ivities Such activities develop skills in the pupils to learn to take turns; to decide upon the role of leaders; to switch roles. These activities train the pupils to be independent and responsible and can be found in their textbooks. Many examples of a learner independence activity for Year 6 can be found in Exercise A Page 19 of Farida J. Ibrahim Beatrice Thiyagarajah â€Å"Moving On With English KBSR Year 6. † D. B. P. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (6 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Language Awareness Activities These activities help pupils to think and understand the language. They are carried out during the English lessons. The following examples are taken from page 42 and 43 of Farida J. Ibrahim Beatrice Thiyagarajah â€Å"Moving On With English Year 6,† D. B. P. Example 1 Guess where these people are going. Then make sentences about what they wear. Example: Hashim is going to the mosque. He wears a baju Melayu a sarung and a songkok when he goes to the mosque. Example 2 file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (7 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 The policeman is trying to catch the thief. He talks to four men. What are their answers? file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. htm (8 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Preparation of pupils for SAL Preparing the pupils to work independently or with minimal teacher supervision would include training them to: read and understand instructional language read and follow instructions plan their own learning programmes make them aware of their learning strategies monitor their own learning â€Å"If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetimes. † Confucius (551-471 BC) file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/chapter4. tm (9 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 Learner Orientation Pupils need to be familiar with the SAC and SAL materials and equipment; so they are taken to the SAC and given a guided tour of the place. During the tour these pupils are given a short quiz to familiarise themselves with the self-access learning system of the school. An information sheet listing what i s available and where to find it can be given to the pupils. Pupils will be given a learner’s file or a SAL booklet on the first day they go to the SAC. They are asked to use that booklet till they leave the school. In this way the pupils are able to record their progress and also the change in their learning attitude. It is important to realise that learner training is a systematic and gradual process. Teachers need to give their pupils time to develop and become effective independent learners. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (10 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 1 Getting to know your SAC Instruction: Answer the following questions. 1. Look around you. Can you name 5 things in the SAC? __________________________________________________________ 2. Where would you go to get a green level worksheet? _____________________________________________________ 3. What are the colour codes found in the worksheet? _____________________________________________________ 4. If you want to look up the meaning of words, what book would you take? Where can I get it? ___________________________ ________________________________________________ 5. Label the plan of your SAC. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (11 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 2 Tell me about your SAC Instruction: Answer the following questions. 1. Is your SAC different from your classroom? ___________________________________________________________ 2. Are there any reading cards in your SAC? _____________________________________________________ 3. Where can you find them? _____________________________________________________ 4. Name three corners in the SAC? _____________________________________________________ 5. Which corner do you like best? Why? _____________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. pk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (12 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE 3 What you can do in during the Self-Access Learning Period 1. Do you already know about the self-access learning room / corner in your school? _________________________________________________________________________ 2. What kind of materials can y ou find in your SAL corner / room? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (13 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 3. Can you do the following activities or use the following materials at the self-access learning corner / room in your school? What is their code? predicting outcomes learn more about universal truths get the meaning of words from the text itself read and solve puzzles listen to a story listen to music Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. Code No. 4. Can you get help when you are working at the SAL corner / room? Who will help you? __________________________________________________________________ 5. When do you take a book during the SAL period? __________________________________________________________________ Do you play games during the SAL period? Can you list the games you can play in pairs and in groups during the SAL periods? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. Introduction to SAL (Overview) | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | SAL Booklet ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (14 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Chapter 4 file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/chapter4. htm (15 of 15)3/31/2005 12:06:20 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test PLACEMENT TEST FOR FORM 4 Name Year : _____________________________________ : _____________________________________ Placement Test Before the pupils begin to use the SAL materials and equipment in the SAC, they are given a placement test to determine their English Language proficiency level. The marks they score in the test will enable them to work on the SAL materials according to the colour code. Questions are based on the skills taught that particular year. Suggested marking scheme according to SAL colour code. 0 39 marks 69 marks (Green) (Red) (Blue) 40 – 70 – 100 marks An example of Placement Test for Year 4 Questions 1 – 5 A. Name the objects below. Use the words in the box. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (1 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 1. __________________ 2. __________________ 3. _________________ 4. __________________ 5. __________________ Questions 6-10 B. Read the sentences below. Write them correctly beside each picture. She waters the flowers at 5 o’clock in the evening. She leaves the school at 1 o’clock in the afternoon. She reads her books at 8 o’clock at night. Rina gets up at 6 o’clock in the morning. She goes to bed at 10 o’clock at night file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (2 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 6. _______________________________ 7. _______________________________ . _______________________________ 9. _______________________________ 10. _______________________________ Questions 11-15 C. Give the opposites of the words below. Choose the answers from the circles. 11. bad 12. happy 13. thin – __________ __________ __________ 14. good 15. clear – ___________ ___________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (3 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test Questions 11-15 D. Fill in the blanks with the correct words. Rubber tapper butcher postman carpenter nurse 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Pak Aman is a _________________. He sells meat at the market. My brother is a _________________. He delivers letters and parcels. Zaniah’s sister is a ________________. She works in a hospital. En Hashim is a __________________. He makes furniture. My neighbour is a _________________. He works in a rubber estate. Questions 21 – 25 E. Match A and B. Write the sentences in the space provided. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. tm (4 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Questions 26 – 30 F. Arrange the sentences below to form a story Every evening he practises i n his school field. First he runs around the field. Then he practises high jump. When it gets late, he goes home. Sham is taking part in the 100 metres race and the high jump. 26. _________________________________________________________________________ 27. ________________________________________________________________________ 28. _________________________________________________________________________ 29. _________________________________________________________________________ 30. file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (5 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test _________________________________________________________________________ Questions 31 – 35 G. Look at the picture. Fill in the blanks with the following words. out on in near at Samad has a canary. He keeps it †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (31) the cage. He puts the cage †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (32) the cupboard. His cat sitting †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (33) the table is looking †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (34) the bird. The cat is trying to catch the bird. Samad comes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (35) from his room and chases the cat away. Questions 36 – 40 H. Arrange the words below to make meaningful statements. 36. __________________________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (6 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 37. __________________________________________________________ 38. _________________________________________________________ 39. __________________________________________________________ 40. ___________________________________________________ _______ Questions 41 – 45 A. Read and circle the correct answers. Ali’s Diary SUNDAY Isa and I went to Tanjung Malim. Very hot day. Storm at night. The roof leaked. Woke up and had to move my bed. Ashiah’s birthday. She had a party. A man came to look at the roof. Late for school because the bus broke down. Some men repaired the roof. Some dead birds in the roof. Dad went to Penang for two days. Helicopter crashed in Singapore. Had stomach ache in the morning. Better in the afternoon. MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (7 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test THURSDAY Dad returned. Uncle came. Letter from Zainal in Australia. Broke my bicycle pump. 41. Where did Isa go on Sunday? A. Pulau Pinang B. Tanjung Malim C. Singapore D. Australia 42. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. Ashiah’s birthday was on Sunday. B. Ali’s father repaired the roof on Monday. C. Ali had stomach ache in the morning. D. Ali’s uncle came from Australia. 43. What did Ali break during the week? A. His bed B. The bus C. His bicycle pump D. The roof 44. Why did Ali move his bed on Sunday night? A. It was a stormy night. B. It was very hot. file:///Volumes/GANPD/P/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/p/sal/placement_test. htm (8 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test C. There were dead birds in the roof. D. The roof leaked. 45. The word returned in the diary means †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. A. came back B. went C. gave D. arrived Questions 46 – 50 B. Read the passage and answer the questions that follow. Ahmad lived in a village. He had fifty sheep. He liked to play tricks on people. One day Ahmad took his sheep to the hill. He rested under a big tree. Suddenly he had an idea. He decided to trick the villagers. He shouted that a tiger was attacking his sheep. The villagers rushed out to help him. They did not see any tiger. They knew that Ahmad had tricked them. They were angry. One afternoon, a tiger really attacked Ahmad’s sheep. He shouted for help but †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 46. How many sheep did Ahmad have? He had __________________________________________________ 47. How did he trick the villagers? He tricked them by __________________________________________ file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (9 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning – Placement Test 48. The villagers were angry because ______________________________ ________________________________________________________ 49. Choose the best ending to the story. A. the villagers came to help him B. the villagers caught the tiger C. the villagers did not come to help him D. the villagers tricked him 50. From the story we know that Ahmad was †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. A. naughty boy. B. A hardworking boy C. A cheerful boy D. A lazy boy file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/placement_test. htm (10 of 10)3/31/2005 12:06:50 AM Self-Access Learning SELF-ACCESS LEARNING For English Language in Malaysian Primary Schools SAL BOOKLET Contents | Plan of my SAC | My learning contract | My study plan | My activ ity plan My evaluation sheet | My record sheet (Sample 1) | My record sheet (Sample 2) My record sheet for reading (Sample 1) | My record sheet for reading (Sample 2) Rules on the care of SAL materials and equipment ile:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/booklet. htm3/31/2005 12:07:05 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet SAL BOOKLET – Contents file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/sal_booklet2. htm (1 of 13)3/31/2005 12:07:13 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet PLAN OF MY SAC file:///Volumes/GANPD/PP/kspkTM-2005/PBI/self%20access%20lg/www. ppk. kpm. my/pp/sal/sal_booklet2. htm (2 of 13)3/31/2005 12:07:13 AM Self-Access Learning – SALBooklet How to cite Self-Access Learning, Essay examples

Drinking water contamination Essay Example For Students

Drinking water contamination Essay Due to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), Americas drinking water is safer than it has been in decades, and of better quality than that of many other countries. Accordingly, many Americans believe that while people elsewhere may have reason to be concerned about getting sick from contaminated tap water, we are safe. Yet, incidents in the United States such as the outbreak of the microorganism cryptosporidium in Milwaukees water supply in 1993 that killed more than one hundred people and sickened over 400,000, and lead and pesticide contamination while not affecting most, threaten the tap water of millions of Americans. In truth, according to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data, in 1994 and 1995, 45 million Americans drank water from water systems that fell short of SDWA standards.1 Adding gravity to the situation, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the EPA advised that people with weakened immune systems should consult with their doctors and consider boiling their drinking water to kill any cryptosporidium.2This is just the tip of the iceberg. Some scientists believe that for every outbreak reported in the United States, another ten may be occurring.3 One such study found that as many as one in three gastrointestinal illnesses often chalked up to stomach flu are caused by drinking water contaminated with microorganisms.4Such microbial-related outbreaks say nothing about the many other hazards borne by our nations water supply. Researchers have shown that millions of Americans regularly drink tap water that is contaminated with toxic and cancer-causing chemicals such as lead, trihalome thanes (THMs), arsenic, radioactive materials, and pesticides. A 1994 study estimated that some 14.1 million Americans drank water contaminated with the pesticides atrazine, cyanazine, simazine, alachlor, and metolachlor.5 The manufacturers of these agricultural herbicides have shown that these chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, and genetic mutations. To make matters worse, some water utilities have been less than forthcoming with information about their drinking water supplies and the efficacy of their purifying methods. While the primary concern of most water utilities is delivering safe drinking water and a large number readily share their water quality data with the public many insist on erecting barriers between the public they serve and information about the water they supply.6As a result of the failure of the government and many water systems in the country to protect the drinking water supply, many Americans no longer trust the purity of their tap water, and so pay enormous amounts of money nearly $2 billion annually for bottled water and home tap water treatment units.7 Unfortunately, there are few standards guaranteeing the quality of these options. According to one study, as much as one-quarter to one-third of all bottled water sold in the United States originates from water supplied by public water utilities.8Unhealthy drinking water affects children in different ways than it does adults. There is cause for special concern for the health of children who drink tap water. Legal standards for most waterborne contaminants generally have been set based on the health effects of pollutants on average adults; consequently, the health of millions of people including infants, children, pregnant women and their fetuses, the elderly, and the chronically ill -may not be protected. To compound matters, infants and children drink more than two and a half times as much water as adults as a proportion of their body weight.9 An infant living solely on formula consumes about one-seventh of its own weight of water each day, which would correspond to approximately three gallons of water for a 155-pound adult man.10 The hazards posed by waterborne lead are especially pernicious. In 1991, the EPA estimated that lead in drinking water harms the health of millions of children, causing more than 560,000 children to exceed the level of concern for blood-lead levels defined by the CDC.11 (A recent EPA rule regulating lead in drinking water may have reduced this number of children.) Particularly susceptible to waterborne lead poisoning are infants, who are often exposed when their formula is reconstituted with tap water. This chapter discusses the widespread contamination of the United States drinking water supplies by microorganisms, pesticides, lead, disinfectant by-products, arsenic, and radioactivity. Citizens need to seek remedies to ensure the health of their families in the face of increasing threats to the nations water supply. Toward that end this chapter describes scientific research bearing on the health impacts of water contamination on children, suggests measures that concerned parents and others can take and identifies model programs of local solutions that have worked throughout the nation. HAZARDS OF DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATIONWilliam K. Reilly, Administrator of the EPA under the Bush Administration, classified drinking water contamination among the top four public health risks posed by environmental problems.12 Some experts estimate that 560,000 people become moderately to severely ill each year from consuming contaminated water.13 About 10,700 bladder and rectal cancers each year may be associated with THMs and their chemical cousins.14 That translates into about thirty cancers per day. The large number of disease outbreaks throughout the country should come as no surprise, considering how many Americans drink tap water that fails to meet minimum EPA health and treatment standards for infectious microorganisms standards which themselves overlook some of the most hazardous pathogens presently infecting our nations water supply. Waterborne pathogen sources that can cause disease outbreaks include leaking septic tanks; uncontrolled urban runoff contaminated with animal waste; manure in farm, feedlot,15 and slaughterhouse runoff or direct discharges; and raw or inadequately treated sewage overflows from aging, poorly managed, or inadequately designed sewage conveyance and treatment systems. Drinking water disease outbreaks occur when drinking water wells, surface sources, or post-treatment water in pipes or storage areas of water systems become contaminated with disease-causing microbes that originate from these sources. Since many drinking water watersheds and recharge areas are now under heavy development pressure, this problem is likely to worsen in the absence of political or legal action. Existing data on contamination are troubling. A 1991 survey of sixty-six surface water plants in fourteen states and one Canadian province revealed that 87 percent of raw water samples contained cryptosporidium, and 81 percent contained a similar parasite called giardia; overall, the study showed, some 97 percent of the samples contained one of these two disease carriers.16 Some of these organisms may have been nonviable, and therefore unable to infect people. In many cases, these organisms cannot be sufficiently controlled with chlorine disinfection. EPA data show that more than 29 million people drank water served by systems with coliform bacteria higher than the EPAs health standards allow, and that 19.6 million Americans drank water from systems that failed to meet the EPAs basic treatment standards, which indicate inadequate quality, filtration, or disinfection. 17 Another 10.2 million people in the United States were being served water found to contain turbidity18 the cloudiness that often signals microbiological contamination and that can make it impossible to effectively disinfect the water even with heavy doses of chlorine. In Milwaukee, for instance, the only initial sign of a problem was the waters turbidity. Testing for cryptosporidium, the deadly parasite that caused the diarrhea and vomiting, did not occur until after people became sick. In fact, until 1997, EPA regulations failed to require any monitoring of water supplies for cryptosporidium. Amendments to SDWA in 1996 require the EPA to regulate cryptosporidium levels, starting with large supply systems. As a result, commencing in the summer of 1997, large systems serving over 100,000 started monitoring for cryptosporidium, and under a rule scheduled to be issued in 1998, most large systems will have to take preliminary steps to filter out cryptosporidium. By the year 2000, the EPA must issue a final rule applicable to all drinking water systems using surface water. Many water systems in the United States may be more vulnerable than Milwaukees to contamination by disease-carrying organisms. The Milwaukee water supply is filtered, though apparently the filter suffered from some type of failure. Unfiltered systems or systems with poorly operated and maintained filters may be at even greater risk. In a limited sampling of fewer than one hundred utilities, NRDC found that more than 45.6 million Americans drank water supplied by systems where the unregulated and potentially deadly contaminant cryptosporidium was found in their raw or treated water.19 Hundreds of chemicals and microbes have been detected in drinking water supplies throughout the country, yet tests are required for just over a hundred of these.20There has been no coordinated effort between government agencies and researchers to document levels of contamination or illness caused by many waterborne microbes, including cryptosporidium. The lack of an active waterborne disease surveillance program in the United States means that reports of outbreaks are haphazard. A CDC report found that the waterborne-related illnesses reported each year probably represent only a small proportion of all illnesses associated with waterborne-disease agents.21 This report goes on to state that illnesses occurring after years of exposure to low-level toxins are not detectable, nor are outbreaks of sporadic illnesses resulting from opportunistic pathogens that may be widespread in chlorinated drinking water systems but that may cause illness with insidious onset and long incubation periods in persons who are immunocompromised.The CDC tracked 116 waterborne disease outbreaks that killed more than a hundred and sickened more than 450,000 others between 1971 and 1994.22 Although the majority of those illnesses occurred during one incident in Milwaukee, other significant outbreaks occurred, including one affecting 13,000 people in Georgia. Aside from the Milwaukee incident, where 400,000 people became ill due to cryptosporidium, none of these outbreaks of waterborne disease have received significant national attention. Epidemic outbreaks of waterborne disease those in which many people fall ill at once are difficult to ignore, say some researchers, whereas endemic levels of waterborne disease incidents in which a modest percentage of the population fall ill, or in which the illnesses are chronic and long-term may be occurring continually with nobodys knowledge. One CDC expert concluded that thousands of people would have to become afflicted with a waterborne illness in New York City before public officials would be able to recognize it as an outbreak, and even then there would be no guarantee that the disease source would be properly identified.23One study sheds light on the grave situation in which our ignorance places us. Researchers installed sophisticated under-the-sink filters in a number of homes served by a water system meeting all current standards for water treatment, including filtration and disinfection. Then they tracked the number of illnesses in these homes, as well as the illnesses in homes served by the same water system but which lacked the sophisticated filters. What the researchers found was as surprising as it was troubling: significantly higher rates of people who did not have the filters became sick compared with those whose water was filtered. The researchers estimated that 35 percent of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among tap water drinkers were water-related and preventable.24PesticidesContamination of water resources is one of the most damaging and widespread environmental effects of agricultural production. Drinking water is vulnerable to pollution by agricultural chemicals, including pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers, as well as their metabolites. Design Of An Aquatic Centre Construction EssayWhile lead, when present, is a serious health threat, there is a very good chance that you do not have a lead problem. The nations leading water-lead research program, at the University of North Carolina at Asheville has tested the water from more than 60,000 homes. It found that 83 percent of the homes tested had very low levels of lead. Another 15 percent could solve their problem by running the water briefly before using it.40 In 1993, Consumer Reports announced the results of their nationwide drinking water sampling for lead. Sixty-one percent of the households had no detectable lead (detection limit 2 parts per billion (ppb)).41Trihalomethanes and Other Disinfection By-ProductsDisinfection of water supplies has substantially reduced the incidence of many waterborne diseases. But there are risks associated with this process. Trihalomethanes (THMs) and other disinfection by-products (DBPs), which are formed when chlorine or other sim ilar disinfectants are used to purify water that has not been treated to remove organic matter before disinfection, are found at significant levels in the drinking water of 80 to 100 million Americans.42 Animal studies have long shown that these chemicals are likely to cause cancer in people.43An analysis in American Journal of Public Health of more than ten epidemiological studies found that DBPs may be responsible for 10,700 or more rectal and bladder cancers per year.44 Colorado researchers recently completed another study of human populations exposed to DBPs. That study confirmed the findings of previous studies that exposure to DBPs is significantly associated with bladder cancer.45 Another study concluded that analyses of the health effects of exposure to THMs and possibly other DBPs may have substantially underestimated risks due to understatement of exposure.46 The researchers found that overall lifetime cancer risk associated with exposure to THMs in shower water is underes timated by about 50 percent if the concentration of THMs in cold water is used in a risk assessment. The level of THMs increases substantially when water is heated, but most studies have measured concentrations of THMs in cold water. When steam is inhaled during use of hot water, such as showering, exposure to DBPs is increased, and the risks are higher than generally assumed. By improving water treatment such as physically removing precursors to DBPs water systems can control DBPs while reducing microbiological risks. Modern treatment technologies known as precursor removal, such as granular activated carbon, can be employed without harming the ability of water systems to disinfect their water. However, only a relative handful of U.S. water systems use this technology. In light of strong evidence that DBPs pose serious health risks, the EPA is required to issue rules in late 1998 to reduce THM levels. More stringent requirements are due in 2002. ArsenicThe most significant non-occupational exposure to arsenic now occurs through the contamination of drinking water. There are numerous studies of populations with exposure to high levels of arsenic through drinking water (at levels above the current EPA standard unchanged since 1942 of 50 ppb). In humans, skin cancer has long been associated with chronic ingestion of arsenic.47 Bladder, lung, and other types of cancer have also been observed at elevated rates in populations exposed to arsenic in tap water.48 In the United States, more than 50 million people drink tap water containing arsenic, mostly at levels below EPAs current standard of 50 ppb. It has been estimated, however, that 25 million people in this country are exposed to at least 25 ppb of arsenic in their drinking water and that as many as 350,000 people may be exposed to levels greater than the 50 ppb standard.51California state experts found that water containing arsenic at the level of the EPAs current drinking water standard (set in 1942 before arsenic was known to cause cancer) presents a risk of more than one cancer in every one hundred people exposed 10,000 times higher risk than the EPAs standard acceptable cancer risk of one in one million.52 This is extremely troubling because 35 million people in the United States drink water every day from their community water systems that contain arsenic at a level of over 1 ppb, which presents a very significant cancer risk.53While numerous studies in other countries have demonstrated arsenics carcinogenicity at moderate to high doses, a handful of very small studies done on U.S. populations have failed to show a statistically significant increase in the risk of developing skin cancer at low dose exposures. The difficulty of demonstrating adverse health effects may be due to the type of study design and the small populations studied, both of which decrease the statistical power of a study to detect adverse health effects. Researchers from the University of California recently found increased rates of death from vascular diseases such as arteriosclerosis, aortic aneurysms, and other diseases of the arteries, arterioles, and capillaries among Americans living in areas with relatively higher levels of arsenic in their drinking water.54 Another study found a link between this widespread drinking water contaminant and diabetes mellitus.55 According to the study of large populations in Taiwan, people who receive significant levels of arsenic in their drinking water have a six to ten times greater risk of developing diabetes mellitus. The researchers found that there was a dose-response relationship that is, the more arsenic in the drinking water, the more likely the person was to be diabetic reinforcing the weight of their findings. The researchers concluded that chronic arsenic exposure may induce diabetes mellitus in humans.Bottled Water and Home Water Filters Though Americans try to ensure the safety o f their drinking water by paying nearly $2 billion each year for bottled water and home treatment units, the quality of the water they receive may not be any better than tap water.49 Home treatment units, which can cost hundreds of dollars, are virtually unregulated, and while many companies test their filters voluntarily, others fail to do so. There also is no requirement that home treatment units be independently tested to ensure that they meet their claims and provide safe water. Hundreds of times more expensive than tap water, bottled water is often no safer. In fact, one study estimated that as much as one-quarter to one-third of all bottled water sold in the United States comes from water supplied by public water utilities.50 Bottled water is governed by an often less stringent set of regulations set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). While the FDA is required to set contaminant standards at the same levels for bottled water as for tap water, these standards in some ca ses still fall short. The FDA generally requires only one chemical test per year, making it unlikely that some important problems will be detected. The standards also fail to account for decreases in microbiological quality caused by long-term water storage, and the results are often not required to be reported to public health authorities. RadiationRadon is an odorless and colorless radioactive gas that generally occurs in drinking water derived from groundwater as a result of the underground decay of naturally-occurring radioactive rock. It is considered to be a known human carcinogen by the National Academy of Sciences and others.56Drinking water contaminated with radon in excess of the EPAs proposed standard of 300 picocuries* per liter of water (pCi/L) flows from the taps and showerheads of over 19 million people according to available EPA data.57 It also is in the water of 81 million people at an average of about 246 pCi/L, posing significant health risks.58 As required by the 1996 amendments to the SDWA, the EPA must establish an enforceable standard for radon in tap water by the year 2000. Radon in drinking water poses significant threats due to inhalation during and after water use.59 The EPA has also found that the ingestion of radon and its decay products poses significant cancer risks.60 The EPA has acknowledged that the cancer risks from radon in both air and water are high and that while the airborne risk typically exceeds that arising from water, the cancer risk in water is higher than the cancer risk estimated to result from any other drinking water contaminant.61